Fiji, officially known as the Republic of Fiji, is an island country located in Melanesia, which is part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It is situated approximately 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km; 1,300 mi) north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji includes an archipelago of more than 330 islands, of which about 110 are permanently inhabited, along with over 500 islets. Together, these islands cover a total land area of about 18,300 square kilometers (7,100 square miles). The farthest island group is Ono-i-Lau. About 87% of Fiji’s population lives on the two largest islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. Approximately three-quarters of Fijians live along the coasts of Viti Levu, either in the capital city of Suva or in smaller urban areas like Nadi, where tourism is a major industry, or Lautoka, where the sugar-cane industry is important. The interior of Viti Levu is sparsely populated due to its difficult terrain.

Most of Fiji’s islands were formed by volcanic activity that began around 150 million years ago. Some geothermal activity, which is heat from the Earth’s interior, still occurs today on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni. The geothermal systems on Viti Levu are not volcanic in origin and produce low-temperature surface discharges, ranging from about 35 to 60 degrees Celsius (95 to 140 °F).

Humans have lived in Fiji since the second millennium BC. Early settlers included Austronesians, followed by Melanesians, with some influence from Polynesians. Europeans first arrived in the 17th century. In 1874, after a short period as an independent kingdom, the British established the Colony of Fiji. Fiji remained a British Crown colony until 1970, when it gained independence and became the Dominion of Fiji. In 1987, after several military takeovers, the government declared Fiji a republic. In 2006, Commodore Frank Bainimarama took control of the government. In 2009, the Fijian High Court ruled that the military leadership was not lawful. At that time, President Ratu Josefa Iloilo, who had been kept as a symbolic head of state, canceled the 1997 Constitution and named Bainimarama as interim prime minister. Later that year, Ratu Epeli Nailatikau became president. On September 17, 2014, after many delays, a democratic election was held. Bainimarama’s FijiFirst party won 59.2% of the vote, and international observers considered the election fair.

Fiji has one of the most developed economies in the Pacific, supported by its rich natural resources, including forests, minerals, and fish. The currency used is the Fijian dollar. Major sources of foreign income include tourism, money sent home by Fijians working abroad, bottled water exports, and sugar-cane production. The Ministry of Local Government and Urban Development oversees local government, which includes city and town councils.

Etymology

The main island of Fiji is called Viti Levu. The name "Fiji" comes from this island. However, the way most English speakers pronounce "Fiji" is based on how people in Tonga say it. An official explanation states:

The spelling "Feejee," which is the English version of the Tongan pronunciation, was used in writings by missionaries and other visitors to Fiji. This spelling was common until the late 19th century.

History

Pottery found in Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled by Austronesian people as early as 3500 to 1000 BC. Later, Melanesians arrived about a thousand years after the Austronesian people. However, many questions remain about the exact dates and patterns of migration. Some believe that the Lapita people or the ancestors of the Polynesians were the first to settle the islands, but little is known about what happened to them after the Melanesians arrived. Archaeological evidence suggests that some of these early settlers later moved to places like Samoa, Tonga, and Hawai'i. Evidence also shows that people lived on Moturiki Island by at least 600 BC, and possibly as early as 900 BC. While some Fijian traditions are similar to those of Melanesians in the western Pacific, Fijian culture is more closely connected to older Polynesian traditions. Archaeological findings prove that Fiji traded with nearby islands long before Europeans arrived.

In the 10th century, the Tu'i Tonga Empire was created in Tonga, and Fiji was influenced by this empire. The Tongan influence introduced Polynesian customs and language to Fiji. However, the empire began to decline in the 13th century.

Fiji has had permanent settlements for a long time, but its people also moved frequently. Over time, unique Fijian traditions developed. Fijians built large, elegant boats with sails called drua and sent some to Tonga. They also created a special style of village homes, including communal and individual buildings called bure and vale, and built strong defenses like ramparts and moats around important settlements. Pigs were raised for food, and early farming, such as banana plantations, was common. Wooden aqueducts brought water to villages. Fijian society was led by chiefs, elders, and warriors. Spiritual leaders, called bete, played important roles, and a drink called yaqona was used in ceremonies. Fijians used polished sperm whale teeth, called tambua, as money. A form of writing, seen in petroglyphs, existed. Fijians made a special cloth called masi, which was used for sails, clothing like the malo and liku. Warfare was part of daily life, and Fijians used war clubs, which were divided into two-handed clubs and small throwing clubs called ula.

When Europeans arrived in the 17th century and colonized Fiji in the late 19th century, many Fijian traditions were either suppressed or changed to help Europeans, especially the British, take control. This was especially true for spiritual beliefs. Early colonists and missionaries used stories about cannibalism to justify their actions. Europeans described Fijian customs as "primitive" and claimed Fiji was a "paradise wasted on savage cannibals." This idea supported violent actions by colonists during the transfer of power. Some modern studies, like those by Degusta, Cochrane, and Jones, suggest Fijians may have practiced cannibalism in a limited, ritual way. However, other research questions whether cannibalism ever happened in Fiji. The most detailed account of cannibalism in 19th-century Fiji comes from William MacGregor, a British medical officer. During the Little War of 1876, he noted that eating enemy flesh was done to show hatred, not for enjoyment.

Dutch explorer Abel Tasman was the first known European to visit Fiji in 1643. He saw the northern island of Vanua Levu and the North Taveuni archipelago while searching for the Great Southern Continent.

British navigator James Cook visited a southern Lau island in 1774. However, the islands were not fully mapped until 1789, when William Bligh, the captain of the HMS Bounty, sailed between Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The strait between these islands, called Bligh Water, is named after him. For a time, the Fiji Islands were called the Bligh Islands.

The first Europeans to stay in contact with Fijians were sandalwood traders, whalers, and "beche-de-mer" (sea cucumber) traders. The first whaling ship known to visit Fiji was the Ann and Hope in 1799. These ships came for water, food, and firewood, and later for workers. Some Europeans were accepted by Fijians and lived there.

By the 1820s, Levuka became the first European-style town in Fiji on Ovalau. The demand for "beche-de-mer" in China led British and American merchants to set up processing stations on islands. Fijians collected and prepared the product, which was then sent to Asia. A successful shipment could earn a dealer about $25,000 every six months. Fijian workers were often given firearms in exchange for their labor. By the 1820s, many Fijian chiefs had muskets and knew how to use them. Some chiefs later took weapons from Europeans. In 1834, men from Viwa and Bau captured the French ship L'amiable Josephine and used its cannon against enemies on the Rewa River, though they later ran the ship aground.

Christian missionaries, like David Cargill, arrived in the 1830s from places like Tonga and Tahiti. By 1840, the European settlement in Levuka had grown to about 40 homes. Former whaler David Whippey was a notable resident. The Fijian conversion to Christianity was slow. Captain Charles Wilkes of the United States Exploring Expedition noted that Fijian chiefs saw Christianity as a change with much to lose and little to gain. Converted Fijians were pressured to cut their hair, wear Tongan-style clothing called sulu, and change marriage and funeral traditions. This process was called lotu. Conflicts between cultures increased, and Wilkes organized a large attack on the people of Malolo. He used rockets as weapons, which caused the village to burn quickly. Wilkes described the chaos, including the cries of women and children trapped inside.

Geography

Fiji is located about 5,100 kilometers (3,200 miles) southwest of Hawaii and roughly 3,150 kilometers (1,960 miles) from Sydney, Australia. It is the central point of the Southwest Pacific, halfway between Vanuatu and Tonga. The island group lies between 176° 53′ east and 178° 12′ west. The total area of the archipelago is about 1,290,000 square kilometers (498,000 square miles), and less than 2 percent of that is dry land. The 180° meridian passes through the island of Taveuni, but the International Date Line is adjusted to keep the same time (UTC+12) for all of Fiji. Except for Rotuma, the islands of Fiji are between 15° 42′ and 20° 02′ south. Rotuma is located 220 nautical miles (410 kilometers) north of the main group, 360 nautical miles (670 kilometers) from Suva, and 12° 30′ south of the equator.

Fiji covers a total area of about 194,000 square kilometers (75,000 square miles), with approximately 10 percent of that being land. The country includes 332 islands (106 of which are inhabited) and 522 smaller islets. The two largest islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, make up about three-quarters of the land area. The islands are mountainous, with peaks reaching up to 1,324 meters (4,341 feet), and covered in thick tropical forests.

The highest point in Fiji is Mount Tomanivi on Viti Levu. Suva, the capital city, is located on Viti Levu and is home to nearly three-quarters of the population. Other important towns include Nadi, where the international airport is located, and Lautoka, the second-largest city, which has large sugar cane mills and a seaport.

Vanua Levu has important towns such as Labasa and Savusavu. Other islands and groups include Taveuni and Kadavu (the third and fourth largest islands, respectively), the Mamanuca Group (near Nadi), the Yasawa Group (a popular tourist area), the Lomaiviti Group (near Suva), and the remote Lau Group. Rotuma has special administrative status in Fiji. Ceva-i-Ra, an uninhabited reef, is located about 250 nautical miles (460 kilometers) southwest of the main archipelago.

Fiji has two ecoregions: Fiji tropical moist forests and Fiji tropical dry forests. In 2018, the country had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index score of 8.35 out of 10, ranking it 24th globally out of 172 countries.

International organizations work with local partners to protect the environment in Fiji. For example, Conservation International Fiji has helped create protected areas, such as the Sovi Basin Conservation Area on Viti Levu, and has focused on protecting mangroves in places like Navitilevu Bay in Ra Province.

Fiji has a tropical marine climate, which means it is warm all year with few extreme weather conditions. The warm season runs from November to April, and the cooler season is from May to October. Average temperatures during the cooler season are about 22°C (72°F). Rainfall varies, with more rain during the warm season, especially inland. Larger islands receive more rain on their southeast sides than on their northwest sides, which affects farming in those areas. Winds are generally moderate, though cyclones occur about once a year (10–12 times per decade).

Climate change is a major challenge for Fiji because the country is an island nation and is highly vulnerable to rising sea levels, coastal erosion, and extreme weather. These changes, along with rising temperatures, may force people to leave their homes and harm the economy, especially sectors like tourism, agriculture, and fisheries, which are key to Fiji’s wealth. As a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Climate Agreement, Fiji aims to reach net-zero emissions by 2050. This, along with national policies, may help reduce the effects of climate change. The governments of Fiji and other island nations at risk from climate change (Niue, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Tonga, and Vanuatu) launched the "Port Vila Call for a Just Transition to a Fossil Fuel Free Pacific," urging the end of fossil fuels and a shift to renewable energy. They also want stronger environmental laws, including making ecocide a crime.

Government and politics

In Fiji, politics happen within a system where the Prime Minister is the head of government, and the President is the head of state. This system includes a multi-party structure, meaning several political groups can compete in elections. The government holds executive power, the Parliament of Fiji has legislative power, and the judiciary operates independently from both the government and Parliament.

A general election occurred on September 17, 2014. Bainimarama’s FijiFirst party received 59.2% of the votes and won the election. International observers from Australia, India, and Indonesia said the election was credible.

In the 2018 election, FijiFirst won with 50.02% of the votes cast. The party secured 27 out of 51 parliamentary seats, giving it an outright majority. The Social Democratic Liberal Party (SODELPA) received 39.85% of the votes and came in second place.

During the 2022 election, FijiFirst lost its parliamentary majority. Sitiveni Rabuka of the People’s Alliance party, with support from the Social Liberal Democratic Party (Sodelpa), became Fiji’s new Prime Minister. This followed Frank Bainimarama’s departure from the role.

Fiji’s military includes the Republic of Fiji Military Forces, which has 3,500 active soldiers and 6,000 reservists. It also includes a Navy with 300 personnel, a land force with the Fiji Infantry Regiment, Fiji Engineer Regiment, Logistic Support Unit, and Force Training Group. Compared to its size, Fiji has a relatively large military and has contributed many soldiers to United Nations peacekeeping missions worldwide. Many former military members have also worked in the security sector in Iraq after the 2003 U.S.-led invasion.

Law enforcement in Fiji is managed by the Fiji Police Force and the Fiji Corrections Service.

Fiji is divided into four major divisions, each containing several provinces. These divisions and their provinces are:

• Central Division has five provinces: Naitasiri, Namosi, Rewa, Serua, and Tailevu.
• Eastern Division has three provinces: Kadavu, Lau, and Lomaiviti.
• Northern Division has three provinces: Bua, Cakaudrove, and Macuata.
• Western Division has three provinces: Ba, Nadroga-Navosa, and Ra.

During the reign of Seru Epenisa Cakobau, Fiji was divided into three confederacies or groups of leadership. These groups are not considered political divisions but are important for understanding the social structure of indigenous Fijians.

Economy

Fiji has many natural resources like forests, minerals, and fish. This makes Fiji one of the more developed countries in the Pacific region, though many people still rely on growing their own food for daily needs. In the 1950s, Marion M. Ganey helped improve this sector by introducing credit unions to the islands. Natural resources include timber, fish, gold, copper, offshore oil, and hydropower. Fiji had fast economic growth in the 1960s and 1970s, but growth slowed in the 1980s. Political changes in 1987 caused the economy to shrink further.

After the political changes, economic reforms led to growth in the garment industry and steady economic progress, even with challenges in land ownership for sugar farming. The end of land leases for sugar cane farmers, along with lower efficiency in farming and processing, caused sugar production to drop despite support from the European Union. Fiji’s gold mining industry is centered in Vatukoula.

Recent economic growth has been helped by more people living in cities and the expansion of services like banking and tourism. Sugar exports and a growing tourism industry are major sources of income for Fiji. In 2003, 430,800 tourists visited Fiji, and this number has increased since then. Tourism is a key part of Fiji’s economy. Sugar processing accounts for one-third of all industrial activity. Long-term challenges include limited investment and unclear ownership of land and property.

The South Pacific Stock Exchange (SPSE) is the only licensed stock market in Fiji. It is based in Suva and aims to become a major regional financial center.

Fiji is a popular travel destination, with popular areas like Nadi, the Coral Coast, Denarau Island, and the Mamanuca Islands. Most visitors come from Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. Fiji has many soft coral reefs, and scuba diving is a common activity for tourists. The main attractions are white sand beaches and beautiful islands with warm weather all year. Most accommodations are mid-range in cost, but there are also high-end resorts and more budget-friendly options in remote areas. CNN named Fiji’s Laucala Island Resort as one of the world’s most beautiful island hotels.

According to official reports, 75% of visitors in 2012 came for holidays or vacations. Honeymoons and romantic trips are popular, as are family-friendly resorts with activities for children. Popular mainland attractions include the Botanical Gardens of Thursten in Suva, Sigatoka Sand Dunes, and Colo-I-Suva Forest Park. Scuba diving is a major draw on outer islands.

Fiji has been used as a filming location for many Hollywood movies, including Mr. Robinson Crusoe (1932), The Blue Lagoon (1980), Cast Away (2000), and Anacondas: The Hunt for the Blood Orchid (2004). The U.S. version of the TV show Survivor has filmed all its seasons in the Mamanuca Islands since 2016. This is the longest time the show has filmed in one location.

Airports Fiji Limited (AFL) operates 15 public airports, including Nadi International Airport (Fiji’s main international airport) and Nausori Airport (Fiji’s main domestic airport). Other airports serve smaller islands. Fiji Airways is the main airline in the country.

Nadi International Airport is located 9 kilometers north of Nadi and is the largest hub. Nausori International Airport is 23 kilometers northeast of Suva and mainly serves domestic flights, with limited international routes to Tuvalu and Nauru. Labasa Airport on Vanua Levu handles the largest aircraft, the ATR 72.

Buses are the main form of public transport on larger islands. Routes are affordable and reliable. Buses also operate on inter-island ferries. The Land Transport Authority (LTA) regulates bus and taxi fares and routes. Taxis are available in cities and rural areas.

Inter-island ferries connect Fiji’s main islands. Large ships, like those operated by Patterson Brothers Shipping Company, transport vehicles and cargo between Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, and smaller islands.

Science and technology

Fiji is the only developing Pacific Island country with recent data on how much money is spent on research and development (R&D), except for Papua New Guinea. In 2012, the National Bureau of Statistics reported that Fiji spent 0.15% of its total money on R&D. Private companies contribute very little to R&D efforts. The government focuses most of its R&D spending on agriculture. In 2007, about 45% of government R&D money went to agriculture and related activities, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics. By 2012, this share had increased to nearly 60%. However, scientists publish more research in geosciences and health than in agriculture. As government spending on agricultural research grew, spending on education research dropped to 35% of total research spending between 2007 and 2012. Government spending on health research stayed about the same, at around 5% of total research spending, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics.

The Fijian Ministry of Health is working to improve local research skills by starting the Fiji Journal of Public Health in 2012. New guidelines have been created to help build local research abilities in health through training and access to new technology.

Fiji plans to use science and technology to expand its energy sources. In 2015, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community noted that Fiji, Papua New Guinea, and Samoa are leading efforts in large-scale hydropower projects. However, there is great potential to use other renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, geothermal, and ocean-based energy.

In 2014, the Centre of Renewable Energy opened at the University of Fiji with help from the European Union-funded EPIC program. From 2013 to 2017, the EPIC program supported two master’s degrees in renewable energy management—one at the University of Papua New Guinea and one at the University of Fiji. Both programs were officially approved in 2016. In Fiji, 45 students enrolled in the master’s program since it started, and 21 more students joined a related diploma program introduced in 2019.

In 2020, the Regional Pacific Nationally Determined Contributions Hub Office in Fiji was launched to help with climate change efforts. Scientists from the Pacific who work on climate change issues are not often included in scientific studies about disasters or strategies to build resilience against climate challenges.

Society

The 2017 census showed that Fiji had a population of 884,887 people, compared to 837,271 in the 2007 census. In 2007, there were 45.8 people living in each square kilometre of land. The average life expectancy in Fiji was 72.1 years. Since the 1930s, the population has grown by 1.1% each year. The average age of people in Fiji was 29.9 years, and there were 1.03 males for every 1 female.

Fiji’s score on the 2024 Global Hunger Index was 10.2, which means the country has a moderate level of hunger.

Most people in Fiji are native Fijians (54.3%), who are Melanesians, and many also have Polynesian heritage. Another large group is Indo-Fijians (38.1%), who are descendants of Indian workers brought to Fiji by the British in the 1800s. Over the past two decades, the number of Indo-Fijians has decreased because many have moved away. After the 2000 coup, Indo-Fijians faced challenges, and tensions between native Fijians and Indo-Fijians have often influenced politics. These tensions vary in different parts of the country.

About 1.2% of people in Fiji are Rotuman, who are from Rotuma Island. Their culture is more similar to that of Tonga or Samoa than to other parts of Fiji. There are also small but important groups of Europeans, Chinese, and other Pacific islanders. Other ethnic groups make up about 4.5% of the population, and 0.3% of people in Fiji are from Australia.

Family and community are very important in Fijian culture. In indigenous groups, extended family members often take on roles and titles related to caring for others. Kinship is based on a child’s connection to a spiritual leader, so clans are formed through traditional ties rather than biological links. These clans, called matangali, are divided into smaller groups called mbito. Family lines are traced through the father’s side.

Fiji’s constitution calls all citizens “Fijians.” Earlier versions of the constitution used the term “Fiji Islanders,” but “Fijian nationals” was used for official purposes. In 2008, a proposal suggested changing the name of all citizens to “Fijians,” which would also change the term for indigenous Fijians from “Fijians” to “itaukei” in the Fijian language. Some people, like former Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase, opposed this change, saying the term “Fijian” should only apply to indigenous Fijians. The Methodist Church also disagreed, calling the proposal unfair to indigenous people.

In 2009, military leader Voreqe Bainimarama, who supported the name change, said the term “Fijian” should apply to all citizens. In 2010, the Attorney-General repeated this idea, but it faced protests. Some people argued that only indigenous Fijians fully understand what it means to be a Fijian, as laws give special rights to indigenous Fijians.

Fiji has three official languages: English, Fijian (iTaukei), and Hindustani. Fijian is an Austronesian language spoken by about 350,000 native speakers and 200,000 who speak it as a second language. It has many dialects, which can be divided into eastern and western groups. Missionaries in the 1840s used an eastern dialect from Bau Island as the written standard. Bau Island was home to Seru Epenisa Cakobau, who became the self-proclaimed King of Fiji.

Fiji Hindi, also called Fijian Baat or Fijian Hindustani, is spoken by most people of Indian descent. It is based mainly on Awadhi, an Eastern Hindi language, and includes many words from Fijian and English. Indian workers brought to Fiji in the 1800s mostly came from eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and parts of South India. About 40% of them spoke Awadhi, which became the base for Fiji Hindi. Later, Hindu and Muslim missionaries introduced standard Hindi/Urdu, which became the prestigious language. Today, Fiji Hindi and standard Hindustani form a language range, with standard Hindustani used in education and writing. The 2013 Constitution requires primary schools to teach Fijian and Fiji Hindi as compulsory subjects.

English, a legacy of British rule, was the only official language until 1997. It is still widely used in government, business, and education.

According to the 2017 census, 69.2% of people in Fiji are Christian,

Culture

Fiji's culture includes traditions from indigenous Fijians, which are important parts of daily life for most people. Over the past 100 years, Fijian society has changed with the addition of traditions from Indian, Chinese, and European cultures, as well as influences from nearby Pacific nations like Tonga and Samoa. These different cultures have combined to create a unique national identity that reflects many traditions.

Fiji's culture was shown at the World Expo in Vancouver, Canada, in 1986 and again at the Shanghai World Expo in 2010, where it was displayed with other Pacific countries in the Pacific Pavilion.

Sports are very popular in Fiji, especially those that involve physical contact. The national sport of Fiji is rugby sevens. Cricket is played in Fiji, and the country is an associate member of the International Cricket Council (ICC). Netball is the most popular sport for women in Fiji. The national netball team has reached sixth place in the Netball World Cup and won gold medals at the 2007 and 2015 Pacific Games.

Basketball has become more popular in recent years due to the success of Fiji's national basketball teams. In the past, there were few basketball courts, which made it difficult for many people to play the sport. Recently, Basketball Fiji, with help from the Australian government, has built courts in many schools and provided equipment for students.

Vijay Singh, a golfer from Fiji, was ranked the world's number one male golfer for 32 weeks.

Rugby union is the most popular team sport in Fiji. The national rugby sevens team is very successful and has won the Hong Kong Sevens tournament 18 times since 1976. Fiji has also won the Rugby World Cup Sevens twice, in 1997 and 2005. The team is the current champion of the Sevens World Series. In 2016, they won Fiji's first Olympic medal in rugby sevens by defeating Great Britain 43–7 in the final.

The national rugby union team is part of the Pacific Islands Rugby Alliance, which previously included Samoa and Tonga. In 2009, Samoa left the alliance, leaving only Fiji and Tonga. As of December 2015, Fiji was ranked 11th in the world by the IRB. The team has competed in five Rugby World Cup tournaments, first in 1987, where they reached the quarter-finals. In 2007, they upset Wales 38–34 and reached the quarter-finals again, where they lost to South Africa, the eventual winners.

Fiji participates in the Pacific Tri-Nations and the IRB Pacific Nations Cup. The sport is managed by the Fiji Rugby Union, which is part of the Pacific Islands Rugby Alliance and contributes to the Pacific Islanders rugby team. At the club level, competitions include the Skipper Cup and Farebrother Trophy Challenge.

The Fiji national rugby league team, called the Bati, has played in international competitions since 1992. The team has competed in the Rugby League World Cup three times, reaching the semi-finals in 2008, 2013, and 2019. They also compete in the Pacific Cup.

Association football was once a minor sport in Fiji, mostly popular among the Indo-Fijian community. However, with support from FIFA and local efforts, the sport has grown in popularity and is now the second most popular sport in Fiji for men, after rugby, and for women, after netball.

The Fiji Football Association is part of the Oceania Football Confederation. The national team defeated New Zealand 2–0 in the 2008 OFC Nations Cup and finished in third place. They have never reached the FIFA World Cup. Fiji won the Pacific Games football tournament in 1991 and 2003. In 2016, the team qualified for the men's tournament at the Summer Olympics for the first time in history.

Cited sources

• Gravelle, Kim (1983). Fiji's Times: A History of Fiji. Fiji Times.
• Morens, David M. "Measles in Fiji, 1875: A look at the history of diseases that spread quickly." Pacific Health Dialog Volume 5, Issue 1 (1998): 119–128. Online.
• Scarr, Deryck (1984). Fiji: A short history. Institute for Polynesian Studies, Brigham Young University—Hawaii Campus. ISBN 978-0-939154-36-4. OCLC 611678101.