An artifact or artefact (British English) is a common word for an item created or shaped by humans, such as a tool or a piece of art, especially one that is important to archaeologists. In archaeology, the word has a special meaning: it refers to an object found during archaeological work, including cultural artifacts that are of interest to people studying history and culture.

The word "artefact" is often used in archaeology, while museums usually call such items "objects," and art history may use terms like "artwork" or "carving." The same item might be called any of these names depending on the situation, and more specific names are used when discussing individual items or groups of similar items.

Artifacts come in many forms and can sometimes be confused with ecofacts (natural items that provide information about the environment) and features (such as buildings or tools left behind by people). These three types of items may be found together at archaeological sites. They can also be found in different situations based on how they have been affected over time. Many different methods are used to study artifacts and learn about them. However, the study of artifacts through scientific archaeology can be difficult when artifacts are stolen or collected illegally, which causes debates about what is right and wrong.

History

Since the beginning of the Stone Age, early humans have created many artifacts over time and in different places. Archaeological sites and museums collect these artifacts as physical evidence from the past. These artifacts help us understand the customs, traditions, and material culture of ancient civilizations.

Context

Artifacts can be found in many different places, such as:

• Buried with a body
• Found in areas like a midden or other places where people lived
• Left as gifts at religious sites
• Hidden in groups, such as in wells

Examples of artifacts include stone tools, pottery, metal items like weapons, and personal items such as buttons, jewelry, and clothing. Bones that show signs of being changed by humans are also considered artifacts. Natural objects, like rocks heated in a fire or plants used for food, are called ecofacts by archaeologists instead of artifacts.

Artifacts are created through two main processes. The first is called a behavioral process, which involves finding raw materials, making them into something useful, and then throwing them away after use. The second is a transformational process, which happens after the artifact is placed somewhere and is changed by nature or humans over time. Both of these processes help archaeologists understand where and how an artifact was used.

The context of an artifact can be divided into two types: primary context and secondary context. A matrix is the physical place where an artifact is found, and provenience is the exact spot within that place. In primary context, the matrix and provenience have not been changed by natural or human actions. In secondary context, the matrix and provenience have been changed by these actions. Artifacts can be found in both types of contexts, and this is important when studying them. Another key term for archaeologists, especially when looking at art history, is provenance, which refers to the history of an artifact’s ownership, location, and significance.

Artifacts are different from stratigraphic features and ecofacts. Stratigraphic features are parts of human activity that cannot be moved, such as fire pits, roads, or trenches. Ecofacts, also called biofacts, are natural objects made by other living things, like seeds or animal bones.

Natural objects that humans have moved but not changed are called manuports. Examples include seashells found far from the ocean or smooth stones placed away from where water shaped them.

Sometimes, it is hard to tell the difference between these types of items. For example, a bone taken from an animal is a biofact, but a bone carved into a tool is an artifact. There can also be debates about early stone objects that look like tools but may have been naturally formed. It can be challenging to tell if a stone is a human-made tool or a naturally shaped rock that looks like one. Scientists can often confirm if something is an artifact by looking at its features and the characteristics of the place it was found.

Artifacts, features, and ecofacts can all be found together at archaeological sites. Some sites may include all three, while others may only have one or two. Sites can have clear boundaries, like walls or ditches, but not always. They can be grouped into categories based on their location and past uses. The way artifacts are placed at these sites helps archaeologists learn about the past. For example, the depth and position of buried artifacts can help create a timeline of events that happened at the site.

Modern archaeologists carefully separate material culture from ethnicity, which is more complex, as explained by Carol Kramer with the idea "pots are not people."

Analysis

Artifact analysis depends on the type of artifact being studied.

Lithic analysis involves examining artifacts made from stone, such as tools. Stone artifacts are common in ancient times and are important for answering questions about the past. These artifacts can show how technology changed over time by revealing different tools and methods used in various periods. Additionally, lithic analysis can help archaeologists learn about how societies were organized and how goods were shared. Techniques used in lithic analysis include petrographic analysis, neutron activation, x-ray fluorescence, particle-induced x-ray emission, individual flake analysis, and mass analysis.

Ceramic analysis focuses on studying pottery. This type of analysis helps archaeologists understand the materials used to make pottery and how those materials were used. Laboratory methods, such as spectroscopy, are used to study these materials. Spectroscopy techniques include atomic absorption, electrothermal atomic absorption, inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission, and x-ray fluorescence. Ceramic analysis also provides information about past societies’ technology, economy, and social structure.

Faunal analysis studies artifacts made from animal remains. Like stone tools, animal remains are frequently found in archaeological sites. Faunal analysis can reveal information about trade, as animals were often exchanged over long distances. It can also provide details about social status, ethnic differences, and the diets of ancient societies.

Dating artifacts and placing them on a timeline is an important part of artifact analysis. The methods described above help determine the age of artifacts. Common dating methods include relative dating, historical dating, and typology. Relative dating arranges artifacts in order based on their relationship to one another. Historical dating uses written records to determine time periods. Relative dating was the only method used for prehistoric times before written records existed. Typology groups similar artifacts together based on their material and shape. This method assumes that object styles change slowly over time and can be linked to specific time periods.

Ethics

There is a big discussion about collecting and stealing artifacts in the field of archaeology. Looting means taking artifacts from ancient sites before they can be studied properly by scientists. This debate happens because archaeologists and collectors have different goals. Archaeologists study artifacts to learn about history, while collectors may want to own or sell them for personal reasons. This leads people to ask an important question: "Who has the right to own the past?"

There are also ethical problems about showing artifacts in museums that were taken from other countries in unclear ways. For example, the British Museum displays the Parthenon Marbles, which were removed from Greece long ago. Showing items from indigenous groups in African countries, which were taken during European colonization, has also caused ethical concerns. Some African activists, like Mwazulu Diyabanza and the Front Multi Culturel Anti-Spoliation, have tried to get European museums to return artifacts they believe belong to Africa.