The Compact Disc-Interactive (CD-I) is a type of digital optical disc used for storing data and a hardware platform developed by Philips, a Dutch company, and Sony, a Japanese company. It was built on existing CD formats like CDDA and CD-ROM and described in the Green Book specifications, also created by Philips and Sony. The format was designed to combine audio, text, and graphics. Philips and Sony hoped the CD-I would be used in education, retail, and home entertainment, but it is most known today for its video games.
CD-I discs are the same size as regular CDs but can hold up to 744 MB of data, including up to 72 minutes of full-motion video. CD-I players were usually separate devices that connected to a standard television. Some setups included CD-I televisions or added parts for personal computers. Most players were made by Philips, but other companies, like Sony, used the format to create professional CD-I players under the "Intelligent Discman" brand. Unlike CD-ROM drives, CD-I players are complete computer systems that use special Motorola 68000-based microprocessors and a unique operating system called CD-RTOS (Compact Disc – Real Time Operating System).
Media released on CD-I included video games, educational and entertainment content, multimedia guides, and business software. Philips’s system also included early internet features like web browsing, email, and online gaming. The goal was to offer interactive multimedia experiences at a lower cost than personal computers with CD-ROM drives.
Authoring tools for the format were first released in 1988. The first CD-I player for home use, the Philips CDI 910/205, came out in late 1991 and cost about $1,000 (equivalent to $2,364 in 2025). It could play CD-I discs, Audio CDs, CD+G, Photo CDs, and Video CDs (VCDs), though VCDs needed an extra "Digital Video Card" for video playback. Initially called "home entertainment systems," the format later became known as a "gaming platform." However, it did not gain enough popularity and was mostly stopped by Philips in 1996. Other companies continued to support the format for a few years after.
Specifications
The development of the "Compact Disc-Interactive" format started in 1984, two years after the introduction of the Compact Disc. Philips and Sony, two major electronics companies at the time, first announced the format publicly at Microsoft's CD-ROM Conference in Seattle in March 1986. Microsoft's CEO, Bill Gates, was unaware of the format's development before the announcement. The Green Book, officially called the "CD-i Full Functional Specification," outlined the design for interactive, multimedia compact discs meant for CD-i players. The Green Book also described a set of hardware based on the Motorola 68000 microprocessor family and an operating system named CD-RTOS, which was based on OS-9, a product from Microware. The standard was not freely available at first and required a license from Philips. However, the 1994 version of the standard was later made free by Philips.
CD-i discs follow the Red Book specification for audio CDs (CD-DA). The program area of a CD-i disc can include either CD-DA tracks or CD-i tracks, but the first track must always be a CD-i track, and all CD-i tracks must be grouped together at the beginning of the program area. CD-i tracks are organized using the CD-ROM XA specification (with Mode 2 Form 1 or Mode 2 Form 2 formats) and are divided into classes based on their content, such as "data," "video," "audio," "empty," and "message." "Message" sectors contain audio data to alert users of CD players that a track is a CD-i track, not a CD-DA track. The CD-i specification also includes a file system similar to (but not compatible with) ISO 9660 for CD-i tracks and requires specific files to be included on a CD-i compatible disc. Compared to the Yellow Book (the CD-ROM specification), the Green Book CD-i standard solves synchronization issues by mixing audio and video information on a single track.
The format quickly attracted interest from major manufacturers, especially Matsushita. Although a joint project, Philips eventually took control of most CD-i development, reducing Sony's involvement. Philips spent millions developing CD-i titles and players. The format was initially called "CD-I," but the name was changed in 1991 to "CD-i" with a lowercase "i."
The CD-i Ready format, created by Philips, is a bridge format that allows discs to work on both CD Digital Audio players and CD-i players. This format places CD-i software and data in the pregap of Track 1.
The CD-i Bridge format, described in Philips' White Book, is a transitional format that enables bridge discs to be played on both CD-ROM drives and CD-i players.
The CD-i Digital Video format was introduced in 1993 and included movies playable on CD-i players with a Digital Video Cartridge add-on. This format was not compatible with Video CD (VCD), though a CD-i unit with the DVC could play both formats. Only about 20 movies were released using this format, and it was discontinued in 1995 in favor of VCD.
Commercial software
CD-i software was usually created using tools from two companies: OptImage, which provided the Balboa Runtime Libraries and MediaMogul, and Script Systems, which made ABCD-I. Many CD-i programs were promoted or published by American Interactive Media (AIM), a partnership between Philips and its company PolyGram, started in Los Angeles in 1986 to make CD-i software for consumers. Philips Interactive Media was also started in Europe.
Philips first introduced CD-i as a product for families and avoided focusing on video games to avoid competing with game consoles. Early releases included educational, music, and self-improvement programs, with few games. Many of these games were based on board games like Connect Four. However, the system had trouble competing with low-cost personal computers in the multimedia market, and games became its most popular software. By 1993, Philips asked MS-DOS and console developers to make games, added a $250 device with more memory and full-motion video support, and included a second controller port on new consoles for multiplayer games.
Efforts to enter the video game market were not successful because the CD-i system, designed mainly for multimedia use, was not powerful enough compared to other gaming systems. Some well-known CD-i games included titles linked to Nintendo, though not made by Nintendo: Hotel Mario for the Mario series, and three games for The Legend of Zelda: Zelda: The Wand of Gamelon, Link: The Faces of Evil, and Zelda's Adventure. These games were possible because of an earlier agreement between Nintendo and Philips to create a CD-based add-on for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, which was never completed. However, the agreement allowed Philips to make games using Nintendo characters.
At CES 1992, several full-motion video games were released, including Dragon's Lair and Mad Dog McCree. One game, Burn:Cycle, is considered one of the better CD-i titles and was later released on PC. Electronic Gaming Monthly noted that CD-i’s full-motion video features were its strongest point, but most games needed an MPEG upgrade card to use them.
Philips also made CD-i versions of popular TV game shows, such as Jeopardy! (hosted by Alex Trebek), Name That Tune (hosted by Bob Goen), and two versions of The Joker's Wild (one for adults with Wink Martindale and one for children with Marc Summers). All North American CD-i games, except Name That Tune, had Charlie O'Donnell as the announcer. The Netherlands released its own version of Lingo in 1994.
In 1993, musician Todd Rundgren made the first fully interactive music CD, No World Order, for CD-i, allowing more than 15,000 customization options. A Dutch Eurodance group, 2 Unlimited, released a CD-i compilation album, Beyond Limits (1994), which included regular CD tracks and exclusive CD-i content.
CD-i had many children’s educational and entertainment programs, such as Busytown and The Berenstain Bears. By mid-1996, the CD-i software market in the United States had declined, though Philips kept making titles in Europe. Philips then focused on kiosk and industrial multimedia uses.
Later, independent developers created new CD-i games, including Frog Feast (2005), Super Quartet (2018), and Nobelia (2022).
Player models
CD-i models were sold in Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Japan, Singapore, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the former European Eastern Bloc. Shortly before it was no longer sold, it was reported that the model would be released in Brazil, India, and Australia in the "coming months," with plans to also introduce it in China, South Africa, Indonesia, and the Philippines.
In addition to models for regular customers, professional and development CD-i players were sold by Philips Interactive Media Systems and its partners. The first CD-i system, created with Kyocera, was introduced in 1988 as the Philips 180/181/182 modular system. In the United States, many players were sold under the Magnavox name, which was a company owned by Philips.
Philips released several CD-i player series, each designed for different customer and professional needs:
Other CD-i-compatible systems included devices that combined features, such as the FW380i, a small stereo system with a built-in CD-i player; the 21TCDi30, a television with CD-i functionality; and the CD-i/PC 2.0, a CD-i module that connected to IBM-compatible 486 computers.
Besides Philips, other companies made CD-i players, some of which were still sold years after Philips stopped producing the format. These included:
Before the CD-i format was sold to the public, several companies showed interest in making players or created designs that were never released. These companies included Panasonic (originally a major supporter of the format), Pioneer, JVC, Toshiba, Epson, Ricoh, Fujitsu, Samsung, and Yamaha. Additionally, Sanyo displayed a prototype portable CD-i player in 1992.
TeleCD-i and CD-MATICS
In 1992, Philips worked with a company called CDMATICS in Amsterdam to create a new technology called TeleCD-i (also known as TeleCD). This system connects a CD-i player to networks like the phone system or the Internet, allowing it to send and receive data and display rich media content. Two businesses, Albert Heijn (a grocery store) and Neckermann (a mail-order company), were among the first to use TeleCD-i. They created successful applications for their home-shopping and home-delivery services. CDMATICS also made a special tool called the Philips TeleCD-i Assistant and software to help others build TeleCD-i projects. At the time of its release, TeleCD-i was the first multimedia application that could connect to a network worldwide. In 1996, Philips bought the rights to the code used in TeleCD-i from CDMATICS.
CD-Online
Internet services on CD-i devices were made possible by using an extra hardware modem and a special disc called "CD-Online" (later named "Web-i" in the United States). Philips first introduced this service in Britain in 1995 for $150. This service gave CD-i devices full internet access, including online shopping, email, and multiplayer gaming for some CD-i games. To use the service, users needed a CD-i player with a DV cartridge and an "Internet Starter Kit," which originally cost £99.99. The service was promoted as providing "full Internet access to the living room on TV screens." Andy Stout, a writer for the official CD-i magazine, described CD-Online as follows:
It is similar to a basic version of the Internet. The main benefit is that it is inexpensive—likely about one-third the cost of a personal computer or Mac— and very easy to use. However, the browser used does not work with Netscape, and the device has limited memory. Users could only view 10 articles at a time from Usenet, save up to 80 bookmarks, and all saved games, settings, and high scores would be lost in RAM. The service offers full Internet access but with about 40% of the features. This may be enough for people who are not familiar with what is missing. However, the virtual keyboard is very difficult to use.
The CD-Online service began in the UK on October 25, 1995, and in the Netherlands in March 1996 (for 399 guilders) and in Belgium. It was planned to launch in the United States as "Web-i" in August 1996. The website cd-online.co.uk, used for the British service, stopped working in 2000. The Dutch website cd-online.nl also stopped updating but remained online until 2007.
Only one game, the first-person shooter "RAM Raid," supported CD-Online. Players from any country could compete against each other if they had a copy of the game.
Reception and market performance
Philips invested heavily in the CD-i format and system, which was often compared to the Commodore CDTV. The CD-i was promoted as a single machine for home entertainment that could connect to a standard TV and be controlled with a regular remote. However, the format was also used for other purposes, such as travel, tourism, and the military. In 1990, Peugeot used CD-i for a point of sale application to promote its new 605 automobile. At the same time, Renault used CD-i for staff training, and Japan’s Ministry of Trade and Industry used it for an exhibition. A Philips executive, Gaston Bastiaens, said in 1990, "CD-I will be 'the medium' for entertainment, education, and information in the 90's." Sony introduced three portable CD-i players in June 1990, describing them as "picture books with sound."
The CD-i format generated interest after its 1986 announcement, especially in the West and Japan, due to the success of the CD. However, repeated delays in releasing the hardware (originally planned for Christmas 1987) led to a loss of interest. Electronic Arts was excited about CD-i and created a division to develop video games for the format, but it stopped its efforts when CD-i players were not released as expected. Meanwhile, the Digital Video Interactive (DVI) format, which demonstrated full-screen, full-motion video (FMV) on an IBM PC, gained attention. Philips and Sony tried to add FMV capabilities to CD-i, causing more delays. At the same time, the CD-ROM standard, supported by Microsoft, improved and solved video playback issues that CD-i had. By 1991, when CD-i players were finally released, CD-ROM was already well-known and established. Ron Gilbert said in 1990, "The CD-I specifications look great, but where are the machines? If they'd come out four years ago, they'd have been hot, but now they're behind the times." Additional issues included the lack of FMV at launch, the use of an outdated Motorola processor, the OS-9 software, and a high price.
Although Philips aggressively promoted CD-i in the U.S., by August 1993, Computer Gaming World reported that "skepticism persists about its long-term prospects" compared to other platforms like IBM PCs, Apple Macintosh, and Sega Genesis. In January 1994, the magazine noted that despite Philips’ focus on games, "CD-i is still not the answer for hardcore gamers," but it suggested CD-i with video cartridges might be a good choice for those needing a new console. However, the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer was considered a better option for those willing to wait. In 1994, Electronic Entertainment noted that CD-i and the Atari Jaguar had "no effective, let alone innovative" game libraries to compete with the newly released Sega CD.
By 1994, CD-i was outsold by cheaper multimedia PCs. Philips tried to promote CD-i as a gaming machine, but this did not help. A 1995 GamePro review said, "Inconsistent game quality puts the CD-i at a disadvantage against other high-powered game producers." A 1995 Next Generation review criticized both Philips’ marketing and the hardware, stating, "The unit excels at practically nothing except FMV, and then only with the addition of a $200 digital video cartridge." The magazine noted that while Philips had not officially discontinued CD-i, it was essentially dead, as no CD-i hardware or software was displayed at the 1995 Electronic Entertainment Expo. Next Generation scored the console one out of five stars. In 1995, the formation of DVD-Video, which promised better video quality than CD-i’s Video CD (VCD) format, further hurt Philips’ efforts. Philips Media moved its CD-i operations from its Los Angeles office in March 1996. By October 1996, Philips was reported to be ready to "call it quits" in the American market.
In October 1994, Philips claimed one million CD-i units were sold worldwide. In 1996, The Wall Street Journal reported that U.S. sales totaled 400,000 units. In the Netherlands, about 60,000 CD-i players were sold by December 1994. Despite Philips’ marketing, including infomercials, consumer interest in CD-i titles remained low. Sales slowed by 1994, and the product line was discontinued in 1998. Plans for a second-generation CD-i system existed, and Argonaut Software was designated to design chip sets for the successor. However, Philips’ president, Cor Boonstra, saw no interest in the media area and sold the company’s assets, including the media subsidiary Polygram.
The Dutch half of Philips Media was sold to Softmachine, which released The Lost Ride as the last CD-i product. The French side of the company, which had purchased German publishers Bomico Entertainment Software and Laguna Video Games, was sold to Infogrames in June 1997, along with the CD-i library and German publishers. A CD-ROM add-on for the Super NES, announced in 1991, was never made. The last CD-i game, Solar Crusade, was released in 1999.
After its discontinuation, the CD-i was heavily criticized for its poor graphics, games, and controls. Microsoft CEO Bill Gates admitted he was initially worried about CD-i due to Philips’ support for the device but later said, "It was a device that kind of basically got caught in the middle. It was a terrible game machine, and it was a terrible PC." The CD-i’s controllers were ranked the fifth worst by IGN editor Craig Harris. PC World listed it as the fourth worst video game system of all time. Gamepro.com ranked it fourth on its list of the worst-selling consoles. In 2008, CNET included it on its list