An artifact, or artefact in British English, is a term for an item made by humans, like a tool or artwork. These items are often of interest to archaeologists. In archaeology, the word has a specific meaning. It refers to objects found through archaeological work, such as cultural items of historical value.

In archaeology, the term "artefact" is commonly used. However, museums often use the word "object" instead, and art history may use terms like "artwork" or "carving." The same item might be called different names depending on the situation. For example, museums use "object," while art history might use "artwork" or more specific terms.

Artifacts come in many forms and can be confused with ecofacts and features. These three types are often found together at archaeological sites. They can also be found in different situations based on how they have been affected over time. Many studies are done to learn about artifacts. However, when artifacts are stolen or collected without proper care, it makes scientific study harder and causes ethical issues.

History

Since the appearance of early humans during the Stone Age, people have created many different tools and objects over time. Archaeological sites and museums collect these items as physical evidence from ancient civilizations. These artifacts help show the customs, traditions, and daily lives of past people, revealing what they used and valued.

Context

Artifacts can be found in many different places, such as:

• Buried with a body
• Found in areas like a midden or other living spaces
• Used as offerings, such as in religious rituals
• Hidden in groups, like in wells

Examples of artifacts include stone tools, pottery, metal objects like weapons, and items used for decoration, such as buttons, jewelry, and clothing. Bones that show signs of being changed by humans are also considered artifacts. Natural objects, like rocks heated in a fire or plants used for food, are called ecofacts by archaeologists instead of artifacts.

Artifacts are created through two types of processes: behavioral and transformational. A behavioral process includes gathering materials, making tools or objects for a purpose, and then discarding them after use. A transformational process happens after the artifact is placed somewhere, when it is changed by nature or humans over time. Both processes help archaeologists understand where and how an artifact was used.

The context of an artifact can be divided into two types: primary and secondary. A matrix is the physical area where an artifact is found, and provenience is the exact spot within that area. In primary context, the matrix and provenience remain unchanged by transformational processes. In secondary context, these elements are altered by transformational processes. Artifacts can be found in both types of contexts, and this is important when studying them. Another term important to archaeologists is provenance, which refers to the history of where an artifact has been, who owned it, and its significance.

Artifacts are different from stratigraphic features and ecofacts. Stratigraphic features are non-movable parts of human activity, like hearths, roads, or trenches. Ecofacts, also called biofacts, are natural objects made by other living things, such as seeds or animal bones.

Natural objects that humans move but do not change are called manuports. Examples include seashells found inland or smooth stones placed away from where water shaped them.

Sometimes, it is hard to tell the difference between certain items. For example, a bone taken from an animal is a biofact, but if it is carved into a tool, it becomes an artifact. Early stone objects may also be debated, as they could look like tools made by humans or naturally shaped stones. Archaeologists use details about human-made tools and the local area to determine if an object is an artifact.

Artifacts, features, and ecofacts can all be found at the same sites. Some sites may have all three, while others may have only one or two. Sites may have clear edges, like walls or ditches, but this is not always true. Sites are grouped based on their location and past uses. The way artifacts are placed at a site can help archaeologists understand its history. For example, the depth and position of buried artifacts can help create a timeline of events at the site.

Modern archaeologists carefully separate material culture from ethnicity, which is more complex. This idea is expressed by Carol Kramer in the phrase "pots are not people," meaning that objects alone do not define a person’s identity.

Analysis

Artifact analysis depends on the type of artifact being studied.

Lithic analysis involves studying stone tools and other stone-made artifacts. These artifacts are common in prehistoric times and help archaeologists understand how technology changed over time by showing different tools and making methods from various periods. This analysis also helps answer questions about how ancient societies were organized, how goods were shared, and how people interacted. Techniques used in lithic analysis include petrographic analysis, neutron activation, x-ray fluorescence, particle-induced x-ray emission, individual flake analysis, and mass analysis.

Ceramic analysis focuses on studying pottery. This type of analysis helps archaeologists learn about the materials used to make pottery and how those materials were processed. Scientists use spectroscopy techniques, such as atomic absorption, electrothermal atomic absorption, inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission, and x-ray fluorescence, to study pottery. Ceramic analysis also provides information about past societies, including their technology, economy, and social structures.

Faunal analysis studies animal remains found at archaeological sites. These remains are common in archaeology and can reveal information about trade, as animals were often exchanged over long distances. Faunal remains also help archaeologists understand social status, differences between groups, and the diets of ancient people.

Dating artifacts and placing them in a timeline is an important part of artifact analysis. Methods like lithic, ceramic, and faunal analysis help determine when artifacts were made. The main dating methods include relative dating, historical dating, and typology. Relative dating arranges artifacts in order based on their relationship to one another, while historical dating uses written records. Before written records existed, relative dating was the only way to date prehistoric items. Typology groups similar artifacts by material and shape, based on the idea that object styles change slowly over time and match specific time periods.

Ethics

Artifact collecting and looting have caused a lot of discussion among archaeologists. Looting means taking artifacts from archaeological sites and keeping them in private collections or selling them before scientists can study them properly. The disagreement happens because archaeologists and collectors have different goals. Archaeologists study artifacts to learn about history, while collectors are driven by personal interests. This raises an important question: "Who owns the past?"

There are also ethical concerns about museums displaying artifacts that were taken from other countries in unclear ways. For example, the British Museum shows the Parthenon (Elgin) Marbles, which were removed from Greece long ago. Museums in Europe displaying items from African indigenous groups, taken during European colonization, have also sparked debate. Activists like Mwazulu Diyabanza and groups such as the Front Multi Culturel Anti-Spoliation have taken action to return artifacts they believe belong to Africa.