The Yakuza, also called Gokudō or the Japanese Mafia, are members of organized crime groups that began in Japan. Japanese police and media refer to them as Bōryokudan, meaning "violent groups," while the Yakuza call themselves Ninkyō Dantai, meaning "chivalrous organizations." In English, the term "Yakuza" is similar to "gangster," which describes someone involved in a criminal organization like the Mafia.

The Yakuza follow strict rules and are organized into groups with their own systems. They have unusual traditions, such as yubitsume, which involves cutting off the left little finger. Members are often shown with large tattoos and wear a fundoshi, a type of loincloth, or sometimes a kimono or Western-style suit.

At their peak in 1963, there were 184,100 Yakuza members and quasi-members (people not full members but still involved). However, their numbers have dropped over time due to changes in Japan’s economy and laws that make it harder for them to grow. In 1991, there were 63,800 members and 27,200 quasi-members, but by 2024, there were only 9,900 members and 8,900 quasi-members. Most members are now older, with the average age in 2022 being 54 years. Only 5% were in their 20s, 13% in their 30s, 26% in their 40s, 31% in their 50s, 13% in their 60s, and 12% 70 or older. More than half of the members were 50 years or older.

The Yakuza still commit many crimes, and many Japanese people fear the danger they pose. While there is no strict law banning Yakuza membership in Japan, the government has passed laws to reduce their income and increase the legal consequences of their criminal activities.

Etymology

The word "yakuza" comes from a traditional Japanese card game called Oicho-Kabu. In this game, players try to draw three cards that add up to a score of 9. If the total of the cards is 10 or more, the score is the second number in the total. For example, a total of 13 means a score of 3, a total of 14 means a score of 4, and so on. If the total is 10 or 20, the score is 0. A hand with cards adding up to 20, such as 8, 9, and 3 (which sounds like "ya-ku-za" in old Japanese), is the worst possible hand because it gives a score of 0. In Japanese, the word "yakuza" is usually written using katakana letters (ヤクザ).

Origins

The origins of modern yakuza groups are not fully understood, but most trace back to two social groups that appeared during the middle of the Edo period (1603–1868): tekiya, people who sold stolen or poor-quality goods, and bakuto, individuals involved in gambling.

Tekiya, or peddlers, were among the lowest social classes during the Edo period. As they formed their own groups, they took on tasks related to managing commerce, such as assigning spaces for selling goods and protecting their activities. During Shinto festivals, they set up stalls and hired some members to act as guards. Each peddler paid rent for a stall and protection during the event.

Tekiya groups were highly organized, with a leader called oyabun at the top and members called kobun at the bottom. This structure was similar to a family, where oyabun were often seen as father figures and kobun as children. During the Edo period, the government officially recognized tekiya. At this time, oyabun were given roles as supervisors and granted a status close to that of samurai, including the right to use a surname and carry two swords.

Bakuto, or gamblers, had even lower social standing than traders because gambling was illegal. Many small gambling houses appeared in old temples or shrines on the edges of towns and villages. These gambling houses often provided loans to customers and employed their own guards. Society viewed bakuto and their gambling houses with disapproval. Much of the negative image associated with yakuza comes from bakuto, including the name "yakuza" itself.

During the mid-Edo period, economic challenges and the dominance of the merchant class led to the formation of yakuza groups by people who did not fit into society or acted in harmful ways. These groups often forced customers to buy fake or poor-quality goods.

Shimizu Jirocho (1820–1893) is Japan’s most famous yakuza and folk hero. He was born Chogoro Yamamoto but changed his name after being adopted, a common practice in Japan. His life and actions were shown in sixteen films between 1911 and 1940.

Today, the roots of the yakuza remain in initiation ceremonies that include traditions from tekiya or bakuto groups. While modern yakuza groups have changed, some still identify with one group or the other. For example, a gang that earns money through gambling might call itself bakuto.

The island of Kyushu, especially its northern region Fukuoka, is known for producing many yakuza members, including leaders in the Yamaguchi-gumi. Isokichi Yoshida (1867–1936) from the Kitakyushu area was considered one of the first well-known modern yakuza by some scholars. Recently, Shinobu Tsukasa and Kunio Inoue, leaders of the two largest clans in the Yamaguchi-gumi, were born in Kyushu. Fukuoka, the northernmost part of the island, has the most registered yakuza groups of any prefecture in Japan.

Organization and activities

During the formation of the yakuza, they used the traditional Japanese system called oyabun-kobun. In this system, kobun (foster child) show loyalty to oyabun (foster parent). Later, a code called jingi (justice and duty) was created, where loyalty and respect became important values. The oyabun-kobun relationship is shown through a ceremony where sake is shared from one cup. This ritual is also used in traditional Japanese Shinto weddings and may have been part of sworn brotherhoods.

Yakuza organizations have a layered structure. Kobun (pseudo children) of a group may become oyabun (family heads) and lead their own smaller groups. These smaller groups also have their own kobun who become oyabun and lead their own groups. Large yakuza groups, like the Yamaguchi-gumi, have five or six layers. This means the leaders of smaller groups often hold positions in the larger group.

The leader of a yakuza group is called a kumichō (group head) or kaichō (chairman). A person who is like a younger brother to the kumichō is called a shatei (younger brother), and a person who is like a child to the kumichō is called a wakanaka (young member) or wakashū (young group member). The title shatei can vary in importance depending on who the "younger brother" is. In general, shatei refers to someone who is a younger brother to an oyabun and holds a high position, but lower-level members may also call their own "younger brother" by this title.

Important positions in yakuza groups include kumichō (leader), wakagashira (second-in-command and like an eldest son), and shateigashira (like the oldest younger brother). Other important roles are honbuchō (general manager), fuku-kumichō (deputy leader), and jimukyokuchō (secretary general). The shikkōbu (executive office) is usually managed by the wakagashira, shateigashira, and honbuchō. Shatei, who are like younger brothers to the kumichō, are often older and have high titles but less real power. In the Yamaguchi-gumi hierarchy as of 2024, the order is kumichō, wakagashira, shateigashira, and honbuchō.

Yakuza groups are led by an oyabun (kumichō or kaichō), who gives orders to kobun (subordinates). This system is similar to the traditional Japanese senpai-kōhai (senior-junior) model. Yakuza members cut ties with their real families and show loyalty to their oyabun. They use family terms like oyaji (father), ojiki (uncle), and kyōdai (brother) to refer to each other. Among brothers, a person of equal rank is called kyōdai, a younger brother is called kyōdai or shatei, and an older brother is called aniki. Most yakuza members are men, and the few women recognized are the wives of bosses, who are called ane-san (older sister). In the 1980s, when the third boss of the Yamaguchi-gumi (Kazuo Taoka) died, his wife (Fumiko) briefly became the leader of the group.

During World War II in Japan, traditional yakuza groups like tekiya/bakuto declined because the population was focused on the war and controlled by the military. After the war, the yakuza adapted again.

Yubitsume, also called otoshimae, is a punishment where a person cuts off the tip of their left little finger and gives it to their boss. This may be done by an underboss to protect a member of their group. This practice is less common now because it helps police identify yakuza members. The tradition comes from how Japanese swords are held. The bottom three fingers of each hand grip the sword, while the thumb and index finger are loose. Removing fingers starting with the little finger weakens a person’s grip. The idea is that weaker grip makes someone rely more on the group for protection. Recently, fake fingertips have been made to hide this appearance.

Many yakuza members have full-body tattoos, including on their genitalia. These tattoos, called irezumi in Japan, are often done by hand using tools with sharpened bamboo or steel needles. The process is painful and expensive, and can take years to complete.

When yakuza members play a card game called Oicho-Kabu, they often remove their shirts or open them and wear them around their waists. This allows them to show their tattoos to each other. This is one of the few times they display tattoos publicly, as they usually hide them with long sleeves and high-necked shirts. New members are sometimes asked to remove their trousers to reveal tattoos on their lower body.

Syndicates

The total number of yakuza members and people connected to yakuza groups reached the highest point in 1963, with 184,100 people. After that, the numbers dropped because of police actions. In 1992, a law called the Act on Prevention of Unjust Acts by Organized Crime Group Members was passed, which caused the number of regular members to decrease. By around 2010, when all 47 prefectures in Japan introduced yakuza exclusion rules, the total number of members and connected people started to fall quickly. From 1990 to 2020, the total number of members and connected people dropped by 70 percent.

In 2024, the National Police Agency reported that Japanese yakuza groups had 9,900 members and 8,900 connected people.

A designated yakuza group, called Shitei Bōryokudan, is a yakuza group labeled as "particularly harmful" by prefectural public safety commissions under the Act on Prevention of Unjust Acts by Organized Crime Group Members, which was passed in 1991. Groups are labeled as Shitei Bōryokudan if their members use the group's influence to do business, have one leader, and include many members with criminal records. After the law was passed, many yakuza groups tried to change their structure to look more professional and lawful.

As of 2024, the Act on Prevention of Unjust Acts by Organized Crime Group Members has led prefectural public safety commissions to register 25 yakuza groups as designated yakuza. Three of these groups have more than 1,000 regular members, eight have more than 100, and 14 have fewer than 100. Fukuoka Prefecture has the most designated yakuza groups, with five: Kudo-kai, Taishu-kai, Fukuhaku-kai, Dojin-kai, and Namikawa-kai.

In August 2021, the Fukuoka District Court sentenced Satoru Nomura, the leader of Kudo-kai, to death for murder and attempted murder. This was the first time a designated yakuza leader received a death sentence. The sentence was later changed to life imprisonment in March 2024. Kudo-kai is the only designated yakuza group labeled as an especially dangerous group, called Tokutei Kiken Shitei Bōryokudan.

As of 2024, the National Police Agency has named Yamaguchi-gumi, Kobe Yamaguchi-gumi, Kizuna-kai, Ikeda-gumi, Sumiyoshi-kai, and Inagawa-kai as major organizations among the designated yakuza. These six groups have a total of 7,300 members and 6,100 connected people, making up 13,500 people, or 71.8 percent of the total 18,800 yakuza members and connected people in Japan.

Kobe Yamaguchi-gumi separated from Yamaguchi-gumi in August 2015. Kizuna-kai separated from Kobe Yamaguchi-gumi in April 2017. Ikeda-gumi separated from Kobe Yamaguchi-gumi in July 2020. These groups and the original Yamaguchi-gumi are now fighting each other.

In recent years, the three largest yakuza groups have formed a loose partnership. In April 2023, Kiyoshi Takayama, the second-in-command of Yamaguchi-gumi, Shuji Ogawa, the leader of Sumiyoshi-kai, and Kazuya Uchibori, the leader of Inagawa-kai, met for a social gathering.

Current activities

In the 2010s and 2020s, the yakuza's main source of money comes from a type of fraud called tokushu sagi (special fraud), which targets elderly people to trick them into giving away large amounts of money. Yakuza members use methods like calling elderly people's homes and pretending to be their children to ask for money, or visiting homes and acting as workers from financial institutions to steal money. In 2014, tokushu sagi was responsible for 10.4% of all yakuza arrests, which was more than theft at 10.2%. About 34.6% of people involved in tokushu sagi were yakuza or their friends. In 2019, the total loss from tokushu sagi was over 30 billion yen. Although yakuza made up just over 10% of the lowest-level members in criminal groups, like workers who pretend to be financial institution employees, they were nearly 40% of the main people who planned these frauds.

The yakuza and their groups control drug trafficking in Japan, especially methamphetamine. While some yakuza groups, like the Yamaguchi-gumi, officially stop their members from selling drugs, other groups, such as the Dojin-kai, are heavily involved. In 2014, the most common reason yakuza and their associates were arrested was breaking the Stimulants Control Act, which bans the use, sale, and possession of methamphetamine. This charge accounted for 26.5% of their arrests.

Some yakuza groups are known for human trafficking. In the Philippines, they trick young girls from poor villages by promising them good jobs in Japan. Instead, the girls are forced to work as sex workers or strippers.

Yakuza often used a form of Japanese extortion called sōkaiya, which is a type of protection racket. Instead of targeting small businesses, they targeted meetings of large companies. Yakuza members would buy a small amount of stock to attend these meetings and then intimidate other shareholders. The number of sōkaiya has decreased over time. In 2024, there were about 130 sōkaiya, with 20 working in groups and 110 working alone.

Yakuza also had connections to Japan’s real estate and banking sectors through jiageya. Jiageya helps small property owners sell their homes so that larger companies can develop the land. Japan’s 1980s real estate boom was partly caused by banking companies’ investments. After the real estate market collapsed, a bank manager in Nagoya was killed, leading to questions about the banking industry’s links to the yakuza.

In 1989, Susumu Ishii, the leader of the Inagawa-kai yakuza group, bought $255 million worth of stock in Tokyo Kyuko Electric Railway. Japan’s Securities and Exchange Surveillance Commission knows of over 50 listed companies connected to organized crime. In 2008, the Osaka Securities Exchange decided to check all listed companies and remove those linked to the yakuza.

Yakuza involvement in politics works like a lobbying group, supporting people who share their views.

After the 1995 Kobe earthquake, the Yamaguchi-gumi yakuza group, based in the area, helped with disaster relief, including using a helicopter. This quick response was faster than the Japanese government’s official efforts.

Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, the yakuza sent hundreds of trucks filled with food, water, blankets, and supplies to help victims. CNN México reported that despite their violent methods, the yakuza moved quickly to aid those in need.

Since the 1960s, the number of yakuza members in the United States has grown. Most of their activity is in Hawaii, but they are also active in cities like Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Las Vegas, Arizona, Virginia, Chicago, and New York City. Yakuza use Hawaii as a stop between Japan and the U.S., smuggling methamphetamine into the country and firearms back to Japan. They blend in easily because many Japanese and other Asian tourists visit Hawaii, and there are many people of Japanese descent living there. They also work with local gangs to guide Japanese tourists to gambling places and brothels.

In California, the yakuza have formed alliances with Korean gangs, Chinese triads, and Vietnamese gangs. They see these groups as helpful because of the high number of violent crimes in the 1980s and 1990s. In New York City, they collect fees from Russian, Irish, and Italian gang members for helping Japanese tourists find gambling spots.

In Japan, 33% of seized handguns are made in the U.S., followed by 16% from China and 10% from the Philippines. In 1990, a U.S.-made Smith & Wesson .38 revolver that cost $275 in the U.S. could sell for up to $4,000 in Tokyo.

In 2001, the FBI’s representative in Tokyo arranged for Tadamasa Goto, the leader of the Goto-gumi group, to receive a liver transplant in the U.S. in exchange for information about Yamaguchi-gumi operations. This was done without asking the Japanese National Police Agency first. A journalist who discovered the deal received threats from Goto and was protected by police in the U.S. and Japan.

The FBI believes the yakuza used operations in the U.S. to wash money as of 2008.

The yakuza have been involved in illegal activities in Southeast Asia since the 1960s, focusing on sex tourism and drug trafficking. They are most active in this region today.

In addition to working in Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam, yakuza groups operate in South Korea, China, Taiwan, and the Pacific Islands, mainly Hawaii. They are also present in North Korea. In 2009, a yakuza member named Yoshiaki Sawada was released from a North Korean prison after spending five years there trying to bribe officials and smuggle drugs.

Constituent members

Prospective yakuza members come from many different backgrounds. Some stories describe how yakuza groups accept young people who have been abandoned or forced to leave their families. Many yakuza members begin their involvement in junior high school or high school as street criminals or members of bōsōzoku gangs. Because of the group’s lower social and economic standing, many yakuza members are from burakumin communities or have Korean heritage. Young people in lower positions within yakuza groups may be called chinpira or chimpira.

In 2024, the Japanese government reported that 576 new yakuza prisoners were Japanese citizens, 8 were South Korean citizens, and 1 was an American citizen. A 2006 speech by Mitsuhiro Suganuma, a former Public Security Intelligence Agency officer, stated that about 60% of yakuza members are from burakumin, a group descended from people who were once considered outcasts during Japan’s feudal era. Approximately 30% of yakuza members are Japanese-born Koreans, and about 10% are from other groups, such as non-burakumin Japanese or Chinese.

Burakumin are a group that has faced discrimination in Japanese society for centuries. Their history dates back to the Heian period in the 11th century. Burakumin are descendants of communities that performed jobs considered unclean or associated with death, such as butchers, executioners, or leather workers. These groups traditionally lived in separate villages away from others.

According to David E. Kaplan and Alec Dubro, burakumin make up about 70% of members in Yamaguchi-gumi, the largest yakuza syndicate in Japan. Ethnic Koreans, who make up less than 1% of Japan’s population, are also prominent in yakuza groups. They face discrimination similar to that of burakumin. In the early 1990s, 18 of 90 top leaders in Inagawa-kai were ethnic Koreans. The Japanese National Police Agency estimated that Koreans made up 10% of yakuza members. Some leaders of designated Bōryokudan groups are also Korean. Discussions about Korean involvement in yakuza were avoided in Japan for many years.

Japanese-born Koreans who hold South Korean citizenship are considered foreign residents. Yakuza groups often welcome them because they fit the group’s image of being outsiders. Notable yakuza members of Korean descent include Hisayuki Machii, founder of Tosei-kai; Tokutaro Takayama, leader of Aizukotetsu-kai; Jiro Kiyota, leader of Inagawa-kai; Shinichi Matsuyama, leader of Kyokuto-kai; and Hirofumi Hashimoto, founder of Kyokushinrengo-kai.

Law enforcement and indirect enforcement

Between 1964 and 1965, Japanese police arrested many yakuza leaders and members in an operation called the Daiichiji chōjō sakusen (First Operation Summit). This happened because the public wanted the yakuza to stop being part of society. After this operation, crime decreased, and the number of arrested yakuza dropped from about 59,000 in 1964 to 38,000 in 1967. The number of yakuza groups and members also decreased. In 1963, there were 5,216 groups and 184,091 members, but by 1969, there were 3,500 groups and 139,089 members. This means 1963 was the strongest year for the yakuza.

Around 1970, many yakuza leaders who had been in prison were released. Some groups that had been shut down during the First Operation Summit were reformed, leading to the Second Operation Summit in 1970 and the Third Operation Summit in 1975. These police actions caused the number of yakuza groups and members to drop again. In 1972, there were 2,957 groups with 123,044 members, but by 1979, there were 2,517 groups with 106,754 members. Smaller groups had to close, and the total number of members decreased. However, some members joined larger groups, so the number of members in large groups actually increased. The three largest groups—Yamaguchi-gumi, Sumiyoshi-kai, and Inagawa-kai—grew stronger during this time. Japan was also in an economic recession after the 1970s energy crisis, making it harder for the yakuza to earn money through usual methods. This pushed them to join larger groups with more varied or legal sources of income.

In 1991, Japan passed a law called the Act on Prevention of Unjust Acts by Organized Crime Group Members. This law banned 27 harmful activities by the yakuza, such as demanding hush money, collecting debts unfairly, or taking land without permission. It also made it illegal for the yakuza to charge businesses for "protection" fees, which were their main way of earning money. Police could issue two warnings to those who refused to stop charging these fees, and could arrest them if they still did not comply. Before this law, the yakuza forced restaurants and bars to pay these fees by threatening them, even using trucks to damage businesses that refused. After the law, many businesses stopped paying, and the yakuza lost a major source of income. In 1991, the yakuza had 63,800 members, but by 1992, this number dropped to about 56,600. By 1994, it was about 48,000, and by 2001, it had fallen to 43,100.

In 2008, Japan added new rules to the anti-yakuza laws. These rules allowed prosecutors to hold crime bosses responsible for crimes committed by their members. For example, the leader of Yamaguchi-gumi was forced to pay over 85 million yen in damages for crimes done by his gangsters. This led to the yakuza losing about 2,000 members each year. Some analysts believe these losses were part of the yakuza’s effort to improve their public image. However, the yakuza have become more secretive and less visible in their criminal activities, as many of their traditions have been reduced or stopped to avoid being recognized.

Starting in 2009, Japanese police, led by agency chief Takaharu Ando, began new efforts to stop the yakuza. In late 2010, Yamaguchi-gumi’s second-in-command and Kodo-kai leader Kiyoshi Takayama were arrested. In December 2010, police also arrested Yamaguchi-gumi’s alleged third-in-command, Tadashi Irie.

Between 2009 and 2011, all 47 prefectures in Japan passed laws called yakuza exclusion ordinances. These laws made it illegal for businesses to work with the yakuza. For example, Osaka and Tokyo passed similar laws in 2010 and 2011. These laws helped reduce the yakuza’s ability to earn money, as fewer businesses and people gave them money or work. Local governments and construction companies also began avoiding yakuza involvement in their projects.

These ordinances also made it harder for yakuza members to live normal lives. Businesses and citizens were required to refuse renting meeting rooms or parking spaces to the yakuza, and could not print business cards with yakuza group names. Companies could also refuse to open bank accounts, sign phone contracts, or process loans for people identified as yakuza. Even companies that provide essential services, like Osaka Gas, stopped working with contractors who were linked to the yakuza. These rules allowed companies to treat someone as a yakuza for five years even if they had left the group.

Since

Legacy

The yakuza have complicated relationships with Japanese society. Even though they are often seen as outcasts, some of their actions may be viewed as helpful. For example, they sometimes stop other criminal groups from operating in their areas. They have also helped during disasters by providing aid. These actions have sometimes made the public view the yakuza more positively. The yakuza also attract members from groups that are often treated unfairly, such as Korean-Japanese people. However, their use of violence and involvement in gang conflicts have reduced public support. According to Jake Adelstein, one study found that 1 in 10 adults under 40 believed the yakuza should be allowed to exist.

The yakuza appear in many forms of media and culture. They have created their own genre of movies in Japan’s film industry. These movies often show yakuza members in two main ways: as honorable and respected individuals or as criminals who use fear and violence. Films like Battles Without Honor and Humanity and Dead or Alive focus on the violent side of the yakuza, while others highlight their business activities.

The 1992 film Minbo, which satirizes yakuza activities, led to real-life retaliation. The director, Juzo Itami, was attacked by yakuza members after the film was released.

Yakuza films have also been popular outside Japan. Examples include The Yakuza (1975), Black Rain (1989), The Punisher (1989), Johnny Mnemonic (1995), Into the Sun (2005), The Wolverine (2013), The Outsider (2018), and Snake Eyes (2021).

The yakuza appear in the 2015 American TV series The Man in the High Castle. They are also the basis for the 2019 BBC series Giri/Haji, which features a character involved in a murder linked to the yakuza. The 2022 HBO Max series Tokyo Vice explores the yakuza from the perspective of an American reporter, Jake Adelstein. The anime series Akiba Maid War humorously mixes yakuza culture with maid cafés.

The video game series Like a Dragon (formerly Yakuza) shows the lives of yakuza members and their criminal connections. The games explore themes like violence, honor, and the yakuza’s role in Japanese society. The series has been successful, leading to sequels, spin-offs, a movie, and a TV show.

In Grand Theft Auto III, a yakuza clan helps the main character after breaking ties with the Mafia. The yakuza earn money from a casino and fight other gangs for control. In the game’s prequel, Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories, the yakuza play a major role. In Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, the yakuza are mentioned as possibly operating in Vice City.

The game Hitman 2: Silent Assassin includes a mission in Japan where the main character assassinates the son of an arms dealer during a meeting with a yakuza boss. Another mission in Hitman (2016) involves targeting a yakuza lawyer.

Several books and shows feature the yakuza:
– Stop!! Hibari-kun! (manga, 1981–1983; anime, 1983–1984): A high school student lives with a yakuza boss and learns about his family, including a boy who appears to be a girl.
– Gokusen (manga, 2000; drama, 2002, 2005, 2008; anime, 2004): A clan heiress becomes a teacher and helps delinquent students using her yakuza background.
– My Boss My Hero (film, 2001; drama, 2002): A young yakuza member must return to school to earn a diploma.
– Twittering Birds Never Fly (manga, 2011–): A yakuza boss hires a bodyguard, but the relationship becomes complicated.
– Like the Beast (manga, 2008): A police officer develops feelings for the son of a yakuza leader.
– Odd Taxi (anime, manga, 2021): A taxi driver gets involved in a yakuza rivalry.

Works by Ryoichi Ikegami explore the Japanese underworld:
– Sanctuary (1990): Two childhood friends pursue power—one as a politician, the other as a yakuza.
– Heat (1999): A club owner challenges both the police and the yakuza.
– Nisekoi (2014): A yakuza leader’s son and a rival gang member’s daughter navigate a complicated relationship.