Sweden and Norway, also known as the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, were two separate countries that shared a common king and foreign policy from 1814 until 1905. Each country had its own laws, governments, money, and military forces. The king usually lived in Stockholm, where foreign diplomats were based. Norway was led by viceroys, who were first Swedes until 1829, then Norwegians until 1856. This position was later removed in 1873. Foreign policy decisions were made by Sweden’s government until the union ended in 1905.
Norway had previously been closely linked with Denmark, but Denmark-Norway’s alliance with France during the Napoleonic Wars led Sweden to take control of Norway as compensation for losing Finland to Russia. By the Treaty of Kiel in 1814, Denmark-Norway’s king was forced to give Norway to Sweden’s king. Norway refused to accept this and declared independence, holding a meeting in Eidsvoll to create a new government. Norway’s parliament then chose Prince Christian Frederick as its king. After a war with Sweden and a meeting in Moss, Norway’s parliament agreed to a shared king with Sweden. On November 4, Norway’s parliament elected Sweden’s king, Charles XIII, as Norway’s king, officially forming the union.
Differences between the two countries led to Norway trying to create its own foreign service, but this failed. In 1905, Norway’s parliament declared independence again. Sweden agreed to end the union on October 26. After a vote confirmed Prince Carl of Denmark as Norway’s new king, he accepted the offer and became King Haakon VII.
Background
Sweden and Norway shared a single ruler on two earlier occasions: from 1319 to 1343 under Magnus Eriksson, and briefly from 1449 to 1450 under Karl Knutsson. This happened while Christian of Oldenburg was chosen as king of the Kalmar Union by the Danes. Later, Norway stayed closely connected to Denmark, even though it was officially one kingdom. In reality, Norway had little power and was treated as a Danish province, with Danish kings ruling from Copenhagen. After 1660, when Denmark established a system where the king had total power, Norway kept some separate systems, such as its own laws, army, and money. Historians later called this union "Denmark–Norway."
Sweden left the Kalmar Union permanently in 1523 when King Gustav Vasa took control. In the 1600s, Sweden became a major power in Europe after King Gustavus II Adolphus helped in the Thirty Years' War. However, wars during the reign of King Charles XII weakened Sweden’s power after the Great Northern War (1700–1721).
After the Kalmar Union ended, Sweden and Denmark-Norway became rivals and fought many wars. In these wars, Denmark and Norway lost important areas to Sweden in 1645 and 1658. Sweden also invaded Norway in 1567, 1644, 1658, and 1716, trying to take control of Norway from Denmark. These repeated conflicts made many Norwegians angry with Sweden.
In the 1700s, Norway became wealthier and more important within the union. The fastest-growing industry was the export of wooden planks, mainly to Great Britain. Wealthy sawmill owners and merchants in the Christiania region formed an influential group that saw the Danish government in Copenhagen as a barrier to Norway’s goals. These leaders wanted more control and resented Danish policies that ignored Norway’s needs, such as the lack of a bank or university. Some members of this group believed Sweden would be a better partner and built ties with Sweden. Around 1800, many Norwegians secretly supported breaking away from Denmark, though they did not act to gain independence. Count Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg was their hidden leader.
During this time, Sweden worked to build relationships in Norway and support any ideas of separation from Denmark. King Gustav III (1746–1792) reached out to Norwegian groups that might prefer a union with Sweden over Denmark.
These efforts to improve relations were not realistic until the Napoleonic Wars caused major changes in Scandinavian politics.
Consequences of the Napoleonic Wars
During the Napoleonic Wars, Sweden and Denmark-Norway tried very hard to stay neutral. They succeeded for a long time, even though other countries invited them to join their alliances. Both countries joined Russia and Prussia in the League of Armed Neutrality in 1800. After the British won the First Battle of Copenhagen in April 1801, Denmark-Norway left the League but still stayed neutral. The League ended in 1801 after Tsar Paul I of Russia was assassinated.
Denmark-Norway was forced to ally with France after the British attacked its navy again in the Second Battle of Copenhagen. The Danish navy surrendered because their army was defending the southern border against a possible French attack. At the same time, Sweden supported the British. Because of this, Napoleon made Denmark-Norway declare war on Sweden on 29 February 1808.
The British naval blockade made it hard for Denmark and Norway to communicate. A temporary Norwegian government was created in Christiania, led by army general Prince Christian August of Augustenborg. This was the first time Norway had its own government since being ruled by Denmark for many years. It showed that Norway could govern itself. Prince Christian August’s biggest challenge was keeping food supplies safe during the blockade. When Sweden invaded Norway in 1808, he led the army in southern Norway and forced the larger Swedish forces to retreat after battles at Toverud and Prestebakke. His leadership made him popular in Norway. Sweden’s leaders noticed his skills and popularity, and in 1809, they chose him to be the next king of Sweden after King Gustav IV Adolf was removed from power.
One reason Sweden’s invasion of Norway failed was that Russia invaded Finland on 21 February 1808. Fighting on two fronts hurt Sweden badly. Finland was given to Russia in the Peace of Fredrikshamn on 17 September 1809. Meanwhile, dissatisfaction with the war led to King Gustav IV being removed from power on 13 May 1809. Prince Christian August, who had become Norway’s viceroy in 1809, was chosen as Sweden’s next king because he was popular in Norway and had not attacked Sweden when it was struggling with Russia. He was elected Crown Prince of Sweden on 29 December 1809 and left Norway on 7 January 1810. After his sudden death in May 1810, Sweden chose another enemy general, French marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, as his replacement.
As Crown Prince Charles John of Sweden, Bernadotte’s main goal was to gain control of Norway. He gave up Sweden’s claims in Finland and joined countries fighting against Napoleon. In 1812, he signed a secret treaty with Russia against France and Denmark-Norway. Some Swedish politicians criticized his plan, saying it was unfair to help Sweden at the expense of a weaker neighbor. Britain and Russia insisted that his first duty was to fight Napoleon. Britain refused to support his plan to take Norway until he promised to join the anti-Napoleon coalition. After he agreed, Britain supported the union of Norway and Sweden through the Treaty of Stockholm on 3 March 1813. Russia and Prussia also supported the plan later. Sweden joined the Sixth Coalition and declared war on France and Denmark-Norway on 24 March 1813.
During battles in Europe, Charles John led the Allied Army of the North. He defended Berlin from two French attacks and won a major battle at Leipzig. He then marched to Denmark to force the Danish king to surrender Norway.
1814
On January 7, King Frederick VI of Denmark and Norway agreed to give Norway to the King of Sweden to avoid being conquered by Swedish, Russian, and German forces led by the Swedish crown prince. This agreement was written into a treaty called the Treaty of Kiel on January 14. Denmark kept control of the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland. The treaty stated that Norway was given to "the King of Sweden," not the entire Kingdom of Sweden, which was seen as a benefit for Norway’s future. Secret messages from Britain had encouraged Denmark and Sweden to reach an agreement to prevent a full invasion. Bernadotte, the Swedish crown prince, thanked Prussia, Austria, and Britain for their help and acknowledged Russia’s role in the peace talks. On January 18, King Frederick sent a letter to the Norwegian people, ending their duty to him.
In Norway, Prince Christian Frederik, the viceroy, planned to protect Norway’s independence and its union with Denmark by leading a rebellion. The king had learned of these plans in a secret letter from December 1813 and likely supported them. However, publicly, he followed the Treaty of Kiel by ordering Christian Frederik to surrender border forts and return to Denmark. Christian Frederik kept the letter private and ordered his troops to hold the forts. He claimed the Norwegian throne as his right and planned to create an independent government. On January 30, he met with Norwegian leaders, arguing that King Frederick had no legal right to give up Norway and that Norway had the right to choose its own future. His advisors agreed, setting the stage for an independence movement.
On February 2, Norwegians learned their country had been given to Sweden, causing anger and support for independence. Bernadotte threatened to send an army to Norway and enforce a grain ban unless Norway followed the treaty. However, he was busy with battles in Europe, giving Norway time to prepare. On February 10, Christian Frederik invited Norwegian leaders to a meeting at Eidsvoll, where he declared his intent to resist Sweden and claim the throne. His advisors convinced him to base Norway’s independence on self-determination and for him to act as a regent temporarily. On February 19, he declared himself Norway’s regent and ordered all gatherings to support independence and elect delegates for a constitutional assembly to meet in April.
The Swedish government sent a mission to Christian Frederik, accusing him of breaking the Treaty of Kiel and warning of war, famine, and bankruptcy. Christian Frederik sent letters to European governments, denying he was working with Denmark and insisting Norway’s independence reflected its people’s will. He also tried to secretly negotiate with Napoleon. The Swedish delegation arrived in Christiania on February 24, but Christian Frederik refused to accept their proclamation and read his letter to the people, declaring himself regent. The Swedes called his actions reckless and left. The next day, church bells rang for an hour, and citizens pledged loyalty to Christian Frederik.
Carsten Anker was sent to London to seek British support, with instructions to stress the need for peace and warn of revenge if Britain ignored Norway’s plight. His request was rejected by British Prime Minister Lord Liverpool, but he continued to persuade British leaders. Earl Grey spoke in Parliament about Norway’s right to freedom, though Britain could not ignore its treaty with Sweden. Anker remained in London until fall, trying to gain sympathy for Norway.
By early March, Christian Frederik had formed a cabinet and five government departments, keeping all major decisions for himself. Count Wedel-Jarlsberg, a Norwegian nobleman, had returned from Denmark, where he had helped supply food to starving people. He warned Christian Frederik that his actions risked Norway’s stability and was accused of working with Sweden. Public opinion turned against Christian Frederik, who was suspected of trying to restore Danish control.
On March 9, the Swedish mission to Copenhagen demanded that Christian Frederik be stripped of his right to inherit the Danish throne and that Europe go to war with Denmark unless he stopped supporting Norway’s independence. Denmark’s foreign minister, Niels Rosenkrantz, denied supporting Norway’s independence but refused to leave border posts. Sweden’s demands were not addressed, and Swedish troops gathered near the border. Bernadotte called Christian Frederik a rebel and ordered Danish officials in Norway to be treated as outlaws. Christian Frederik responded by seizing navy supplies.
The Union
The new king never visited his Norwegian kingdom, but his chosen heir, Charles John, arrived in Christiania on 18 November 1814. During his meeting with the Storting, he accepted the election and promised to follow the rules for the king. In his speech, the crown prince explained that the Union was an agreement between the king and the people of Norway. He said, "I have chosen to take on the responsibilities that show the people's love, rather than the special rights given by serious treaties." His rejection of the Treaty of Kiel as the legal basis for the Union was approved by the Swedish Riksdag in the introduction to the Act of Union on 15 August 1815. To understand the Union, it is important to know the events that led to its creation. These events show that Sweden, with help from major powers, pushed Norway into the Union. At the same time, Norway, with support from the same powers, set the terms of the Union.
Conflicts were natural in a partnership between two groups with such different goals. Sweden saw the Union as a long-held idea strengthened by its recent loss of Finland. Sweden hoped that over time, Norwegians would accept closer ties. Norway, as the weaker group, insisted on strict follow-through of agreed conditions and carefully protected details that showed equality between the two states.
An important part of the Union was that Norway had a more democratic constitution than Sweden. Norway’s 1814 constitution followed the rule that the government, laws, and courts should have separate roles. Norway had a one-chamber legislature with more power than any other legislature in Europe. In contrast, Sweden’s king had nearly full control; Sweden’s 1809 Instrument of Government stated clearly that "the king alone shall govern the realm." More men in Norway (about 40%) had the right to vote than in Sweden, where society was more divided into classes. In the early years of the Union, a powerful group of government workers influenced Norwegian politics, but they were few in number and could lose control if new voters chose to support people from lower social groups. To stay in power, government workers formed an alliance with wealthy farmers. Policies that helped farming and rural areas kept farmers loyal. However, because the constitution required two-thirds of parliament members to be elected from rural areas, more farmers would eventually be elected, which could weaken the alliance. Laws that encouraged people to take part in local government led to the creation of local self-government in 1837, forming 373 rural areas called Formannskapsdistrikt, which matched the church parishes of Norway. More people gaining experience in government meant they would later push for their own interests, often against the group of government workers.
As Norway became more democratic, the political systems of Norway and Sweden grew more different, making cooperation harder and eventually leading to the end of the union. For example, the king had the power to stop any law completely in Sweden, but in Norway, the king could only delay laws. Charles John asked the Storting to give him the power to stop laws completely, but he had to give up. While the constitution said the king had control, in practice, power increasingly rested with his Council of State (statsråd). A major change happened in 1884, when Norway became the first Scandinavian monarchy to use parliamentary rule. After 1884, the king could no longer choose a government entirely of his own choosing or keep it in power against the will of the Storting. Instead, the king could only appoint members of the party or group with the most support in the Storting. The council also had to answer to the Storting, so if the Storting did not support the government, it would have to resign. In Sweden, parliamentary rule was not established until 1905—just before the union ended.
The lack of a shared constitution was a problem for crown prince Charles John in the first year of the Union. The main agreements were the Convention of Moss and the revised Norwegian constitution of 4 November 1814. However, the conservative Swedish Riksdag did not allow changes to Sweden’s constitution. Therefore, a treaty had to be made to clarify how to handle questions that required both governments to decide together. The Act of Union (Riksakten) was negotiated in the spring of 1815, with Prime Minister Peder Anker leading the Norwegian group. The treaty had twelve sections about the king’s power, how the two legislatures would work together, how the government would function if the king died before the crown prince reached adulthood, and how the two cabinets would interact. It also confirmed that foreign policy would be handled in the Swedish cabinet, with the Norwegian prime minister present. Important Union-related questions would be discussed in joint meetings where all Norwegian ministers in Stockholm would attend. The Act was passed by the Storting on 31 July 1815 and by the Riksdag on 6 August, and approved by the king on 15 August. In Sweden, the Act of Union was part of regular law, but the Norwegian Storting gave it the same status as the constitution, meaning it could only be changed according to the rules in the constitution.
The conditions of the Union, as set out in the Convention of Moss, the revised Norwegian constitution, and the Act of Union, gave Norway more independence than Sweden had intended in the Treaty of Kiel. It seemed that Norway had joined the Union willingly and strongly refused to accept Swedish dominance, while many Swedes saw Norway as a weaker partner and a prize from war.
Legally, Norway had the status of an independent constitutional monarchy, with more freedom inside the country than it had had in over 400 years. While Norway and Sweden shared the same king and foreign policy, all other government areas were separate. Norway had its own army, navy, and money. The foreign service was directly under the king, a rule already in the Norwegian constitution of 17 May 1814, before the revision of 4 November. An unexpected result was that foreign policy was decided in the Swedish cabinet and managed by Sweden’s foreign ministry. When foreign policy was discussed in meetings, the only Norwegian person who could speak for Norway was the prime minister. The Swedish Riksdag could indirectly influence foreign policy, but not the Norwegian Storting. Because foreign representatives were chosen by the Swedish government and mostly filled with Swedes, the Union was often seen by others as one country instead of two separate states. Over time, it became less common to call the union "Sweden" and more common to refer to it as "Sweden and Norway."
According to the Norwegian constitution, the king was to choose his own cabinet. Because the king mostly lived in Stockholm,
Zenith of the Union, 1844–1860
During the middle years of the 19th century, the Union between Norway and Sweden was a time of peace. Important issues had been resolved, Norway gained more control over foreign policy, and the position of viceroy or governor was either left empty or held by a Norwegian official named Severin Løvenskiold. Trade between the two countries grew because of treaties called mellomriksloven, which allowed free trade and removed high taxes on goods. The completion of the Kongsvinger Line, the first railway connecting the two nations, improved communication. Sweden made efforts to improve relations with Norway by showing willingness to treat both countries as equals.
Scandinavism, a movement that promoted unity among Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, was very strong during this time. It encouraged the idea that the three countries shared a common history, language, and culture, and were like "three brothers," as described in Norway’s national anthem. This movement began with Danish and Swedish students in the 1840s. At first, leaders in both countries were unsure about it, but when Oscar I became king of both Sweden and Norway in 1844, relations with Denmark improved, and the movement gained more support. Norwegian students joined in 1845 and met with Swedish students yearly. During the war between Denmark and Prussia in 1848, King Oscar offered military help through a Norwegian-Swedish force, though the force was never used. However, the movement weakened after the 1864 war over Schleswig, when Sweden and Norway forced King Charles XV to cancel a promise of military aid to Denmark without consulting their governments.
By this time, Norwegians had lost trust in the Union because of disagreements over ending the position of viceroy. King Charles XV supported Norway’s request to replace the viceroy with a prime minister in Christiania, and the Norwegian parliament nearly unanimously approved the change. However, when the king returned to Sweden, Swedish newspapers criticized Norway for acting against the Union’s rules. The Swedish government claimed Sweden had the right to lead the Union, and King Charles had to cancel the change after Swedish officials threatened to resign. He later approved the law in a private meeting with Norwegian leaders, but this action made it seem like he cared more about Sweden than Norway.
On April 24, 1860, the Norwegian parliament declared that Norway alone had the right to change its own constitution and that any changes to the Union must be based on equal rights for both countries. This decision stopped efforts to revise the Union’s rules for many years. A new committee was formed in 1866, but its suggestions were rejected in 1871 because they did not ensure equal influence in foreign policy and could have led to a stronger, shared government.
In 1864, King Charles XV tried to form an alliance with Denmark to oppose Prussia, but after Denmark lost the war, he planned a Scandinavian Union with France’s help to challenge Prussia’s power. This plan failed when France’s government fell in 1870. King Charles XV died on September 18, 1872, and was succeeded by his younger brother, the Duke of Östergötland, who became King Oscar II.
Prelude to dissolution
During the time King Oscar II ruled Sweden (1872–1907), the relationship with Norway greatly affected Sweden's political life. More than once, it seemed like the union between the two countries might end. The disagreements mainly came from Norway's request for separate consuls and eventually a separate foreign service. Norway's 1814 constitution allowed for separate consular offices, but Norway had not used this right. This was partly because of financial reasons and partly because the Swedish foreign office had done a good job representing Norway. However, by the late 1800s, Norway's merchant ships grew rapidly, becoming one of the world's largest. This made it clear that Norway needed separate consuls to help its shipping and national interests abroad. The demand for separate consuls also became a symbol of Norway's growing dissatisfaction with the union.
In Norway, disagreements over the constitution led to the practical adoption of parliamentarism in 1884 after a process that accused the conservative government of helping the king block reforms. The new liberal government, led by Johan Sverdrup, was reluctantly accepted by King Oscar. It quickly introduced reforms, including expanded voting rights and mandatory military service. In 1884, two formal political parties formed: Venstre (Left) for liberals who wanted to end the union, and Højre (Right) for conservatives who wanted to keep the union as equal states.
In 1891, liberals won a large majority in elections, supporting universal voting rights for men and a separate Norwegian foreign service. The new Steen government proposed separate consular services and began talks with Sweden. However, the king's opposition caused several government crises until a coalition government formed in 1895, led by Francis Hagerup. That year, a third joint union committee was created, with seven members from each country, but it failed to agree on key issues and was disbanded in 1898. Faced with Sweden's military strength, Norway had to withdraw its demand for separate consuls in 1895. This failure showed that Norway's military had been neglected, so it began rapid rearmament, ordering four battleships from the United Kingdom and building border defenses.
In 1895, Sweden announced that the 1874 trade agreement would end in 1897. When Sweden turned to protectionism, Norway raised its tariffs, which greatly reduced trade between the two countries. Count Lewenhaupt, Sweden's foreign minister, resigned due to his friendly stance toward Norway and was replaced by Count Ludvig Douglas, who supported the majority in Sweden's First Chamber. However, in 1898, Norway's parliament passed a law for a "pure" flag without the union symbol, which became law without the king's approval.
The 1900 elections in Sweden showed that people did not support the ultraconservative "patriotic" party, leading to the resignation of its leaders. Meanwhile, E. Carlson formed a liberal and radical party with about 90 members, supporting expanded voting rights and full equality with Norway in foreign affairs. In Norway, the same year's elections with expanded voting rights gave liberals (Venstre) a large majority for their plan of a separate foreign service and consuls. Steen remained prime minister but was replaced by Otto Blehr in 1902.
The issue of separate consuls for Norway arose again in 1902. Foreign minister Lagerheim proposed separate consular services while keeping a joint foreign service. Norway agreed to form another joint committee to discuss the matter. A "communiqué" published on March 24, 1903, suggested that separate consuls would work with the joint foreign ministry and embassies under identical laws, which neither country could change without agreement. However, this was not a formal agreement but a preliminary plan. In 1903, conservatives (Højre) won many votes for their plan to reconcile and negotiate. A new coalition government under Hagerup formed in October 1903, supported by a national consensus to continue negotiations. The communiqué's proposals were presented to a joint council on December 11, raising hopes for a solution. King Oscar asked the governments to draft identical laws.
Norway's draft for identical laws was submitted in May 1904 but received no response from Sweden. While Norway had never had a more pro-union government, Sweden's political opinion had shifted. Foreign minister Lagerheim resigned on November 7 due to disagreements with prime minister Erik Gustaf Boström and others. Boström then went to Christiania and proposed conditions for a settlement, including Swedish control over Norwegian consuls and Sweden being mentioned before Norway in official documents. Norway found these demands unacceptable, as they violated Norway's sovereignty. Sweden's counter-proposal was also rejected. On February 7, 1905, King Oscar decided to end negotiations he had started in 1903. Despite this, the king still hoped for an agreement. The next day, Crown Prince Gustaf became regent and went to Christiania in February 13 to try to save the union. During his time there, he met with the government and a special committee working on laws for Norwegian consuls, urging them not to take actions that would break relations. However, the committee recommended proceeding with their work, and the Hagerup government was replaced by the more firm government of Christian Michelsen.
Back in Stockholm, Crown Prince Gustaf called a joint council on April 5 to ask both governments to return to negotiations and find a solution based on equal treatment between the two countries. He proposed reforms for both foreign and consular services, with the note that a joint foreign minister—
Dissolution of the Union
On May 23, 1905, the Storting approved the government’s plan to create separate Norwegian consuls. King Oscar, who was in charge of the government again, used his right to block the bill on May 27. As planned, the Norwegian government then resigned. However, the king said he could not accept their resignation because he believed no other government could be formed. The ministers refused to sign the king’s decision and left for Christiania immediately.
The king did not take further steps to return to normal government rules. On June 7, the Storting planned to officially end the union with Sweden. The ministers gave their resignations to the Storting, which passed a resolution stating the union was dissolved because King Oscar had stopped acting as Norway’s king by refusing to form a new government. The resolution also said the king’s power was no longer valid. Michelsen and his ministers were told to stay in office as a temporary government until new rules were made.
Sweden reacted strongly to the Storting’s actions. The king protested and called an emergency meeting of the Riksdag on June 20 to discuss what steps to take after Norway’s actions. The Riksdag said it would consider ending the union if a vote by the Norwegian people supported it. The Riksdag also set aside 100 million kronor for possible use. It was understood, though not stated, that the money might be used for war. Both countries saw the threat of war as real, and Norway borrowed 40 million kronor from France for the same purpose.
The Norwegian government knew about Sweden’s plans and acted first by holding a vote on August 13—before Sweden asked for a vote. The vote did not ask people to approve or reject the dissolution, but to confirm it had already happened. The result was 368,392 votes in favor and 184 against, a majority of over 99.9 percent. After the Storting asked Sweden to help end the union, leaders from both countries met in Karlstad on August 31. Talks were briefly stopped, and Sweden gathered troops, so Norway prepared its army and navy on September 13. An agreement was reached on September 23. Key points included sending disputes to a court in The Hague, creating a neutral zone near the border, and removing Norwegian forts in that area.
Both countries’ parliaments approved the agreement and ended the union on October 16. Ten days later, King Oscar gave up his claim to the Norwegian throne for himself and his descendants. The Storting asked Oscar to allow a Bernadotte prince to become Norway’s king, but he refused. The Storting then offered the throne to Prince Carl of Denmark, who accepted after another vote confirmed the monarchy. Prince Carl arrived in Norway on November 25, 1905, and took the name Haakon VII.