The Tempest is a play written by William Shakespeare, likely completed between 1610 and 1611. It is believed to be one of the last plays he wrote alone. The first scene takes place on a ship during a storm at sea. The rest of the play happens on a faraway island, where Prospero, a magician, lives with his daughter Miranda and two servants: Caliban, a wild creature, and Ariel, a spirit that can fly. The play includes music and songs that create a magical feeling. It explores themes such as magic, betrayal, revenge, forgiveness, and family. In Act IV, a wedding celebration serves as a play inside the play, adding visual beauty, symbolic meaning, and poetic language.

Although The Tempest is listed first in the First Folio as a comedy, it includes both serious and humorous elements. Modern critics classify it as a "late romance," a type of story found in Shakespeare's later works. The play has been widely studied and interpreted over time. Its main character, Prospero, has been compared to Shakespeare himself, with Prospero giving up magic symbolizing Shakespeare ending his career on stage. The play has also been viewed as a symbolic story about Europeans taking control of distant lands.

The play has continued to influence artists around the world. It has inspired works in theater, film, literature, music (especially opera), and visual art.

Plot

Twelve years before the events of the play, Prospero, once the Duke of Milan and a skilled magician, was forced from his position by his dishonest brother Antonio, with the help of Alonso, King of Naples. Prospero escaped by boat with his young daughter Miranda and fled to a distant island, where he has lived ever since. On the island, he used his magic to make the only other inhabitant, Caliban, serve him and protect Miranda. He also freed a spirit named Ariel and made him work for him.

When a ship carrying Antonio passed near the island, Prospero used magic, with Ariel’s help, to create a storm. The ship was destroyed, and Antonio, along with Alonso, Ferdinand (Alonso’s son and heir to the throne), Sebastian (Alonso’s brother), Gonzalo (Prospero’s loyal minister), Adrian, and other court members, were shipwrecked on the island.

Prospero created a clever plan to punish those who wronged him and to reclaim his title as Duke of Milan. Using magic, he separated the shipwreck survivors into groups on the island:

• Ferdinand was saved by Prospero and Miranda and given a place to stay. Prospero made Ferdinand fall in love with Miranda.
• Trinculo, the king’s jester, and Stephano, the king’s drunken butler, met Caliban. They tried to rebel against Prospero but failed. This part of the play provides humor.
• Alonso, Sebastian, Antonio, Gonzalo, and two other lords (Adrian and Francisco) were grouped together. Antonio and Sebastian planned to kill Alonso and Gonzalo so Sebastian could become king. Prospero and Ariel stopped the plan. Later, Ariel appeared as a harpy and harmed Antonio, Alonso, and Sebastian, making them feel guilty for their actions.
• The ship’s captain, the boatswain, and other sailors were put into a magical sleep until the final part of the play.

Prospero wanted Miranda, now 15 years old, to marry Ferdinand. He told Ariel to summon other spirits to create a masque.

The masque included ancient goddesses named Juno, Ceres, and Iris, who blessed and celebrated Miranda and Ferdinand’s engagement. The masque also taught the young couple about marriage and the importance of remaining faithful until their wedding.

The masque was interrupted when Prospero remembered the plot against his life. After Ferdinand and Miranda left, Prospero ordered Ariel to stop the nobles’ plan. Caliban, Trinculo, and Stephano were chased into the swamps by creatures that looked like dogs.

Prospero promised to free Ariel once he achieved his goals and to stop using magic. He said:

Ariel brought Alonso, Antonio, and Sebastian to Prospero. Prospero forgave them all. Prospero’s title as Duke of Milan was restored. Ariel woke the sailors from the ship and brought Caliban, Trinculo, and Stephano. Caliban, showing regret, promised to behave. Stephano and Trinculo were laughed at and sent away in shame by Prospero. Before the group (including all the nobles, Miranda, and Prospero) left the island, Ariel was told to make the weather good so the king’s ship could return to the royal fleet and sail to Naples, where Ferdinand and Miranda would be married. After this, Ariel was set free.

In the final part of the play, Prospero asked the audience to free him by giving him applause.

Date and sources

It is not clear exactly when Shakespeare wrote The Tempest, but evidence suggests it was probably written between late 1610 and mid-1611. Some evidence shows it may have been written before, after, or around the same time as The Winter's Tale. The Tempest is considered one of the last plays Shakespeare wrote alone. However, it was not his final play, as he later worked with John Fletcher on Henry VIII, Cardenio, and The Two Noble Kinsmen. Edward Blount registered The Tempest in the Stationers' Register on 8 November 1623. It was one of 16 Shakespeare plays Blount registered on that date.

There is no single clear source for the story of The Tempest. Shakespeare likely created it using ideas from several different sources.

One possible source is A True Reportory of the Wracke and Redemption of Sir Thomas Gates, Knight by William Strachey. This account describes a real shipwreck of the Sea Venture in 1609 near Bermuda. It may have influenced the opening scene of The Tempest and other parts of the play. Strachey’s report was not published until 1625, but he first shared it in a private letter dated 15 July 1610. Shakespeare may have read this letter that year, as he had connections with members of the Virginia Company. Around the same time, another survivor of the Sea Venture, Silvester Jourdain, wrote A Discovery of The Barmudas. A 1610 pamphlet by the Council of Virginia, True Declaration of the state of the Colonie in Virginia, also provides related information. Kenneth Muir noted that while Shakespeare likely read Strachey’s report, the similarities between the play and the Bermuda accounts may have been overstated.

Another source is Montaigne’s essay Of the Canibales, translated into English in 1603 by John Florio. Gonzalo’s description of an ideal society in The Tempest echoes Montaigne’s praise for the simple, peaceful life of Caribbean natives.

A passage from Ovid’s Metamorphoses may have influenced Prospero’s farewell to magic in Act V. In the poem, the sorceress Medea speaks, and Shakespeare’s Prospero uses similar language.

Other possible sources include shipwreck stories by Antonio Pigafetta in Richard Eden’s travel books from 1555 and 1557. Some character names may come from a 1594 history of Italy.

The structure of The Tempest may be inspired by commedia dell’arte, a traditional Italian theater style that often included a magician, his daughter, supernatural helpers, and rustic characters. Characters like Stephano and Trinculo resemble Arlecchino and Brighella, while Caliban is similar to a lecherous hunchback in commedia. Miranda and Prospero’s relationship mirrors that of Isabella and Pantalone. Other influences on Prospero include Friar Bacon by Greene, Dr. Faustus by Marlowe, and Owen Glendower by Shakespeare. Caliban may have been inspired by Bremo in Mucedorus.

Scholars have debated the influence of Virgil’s Aeneid, which Robert Wiltenburg described as a major work Shakespeare responded to, though not the source of the plot. More recently, scholars have also noted the influence of The Malcontent by Marston, Philaster by Beaumont and Fletcher, and the anonymous romance Primaleon, Prince of Greece.

Text

The Tempest first appeared in print in 1623 in a collection of 36 of Shakespeare’s plays titled Mr. William Shakespeare's Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies; Published according to the True and Original Copies, which is known as the First Folio. The plays, including The Tempest, were gathered and edited by John Heminges and Henry Condell.

The text in the First Folio was based on a handwritten manuscript of The Tempest prepared by Ralph Crane, a copyist who worked for the King’s Men. Crane likely copied from Shakespeare’s rough draft and used a style similar to Ben Jonson’s Folio of 1616. Crane may have made the text neater, edited the divisions of acts and scenes, and sometimes added his own changes. He often joined words with hyphens and used apostrophes to shorten phrases, such as changing “with the king” to “wi'th' King.” The detailed stage directions in The Tempest may have been added by Crane, as they describe how the play was performed by the King’s Men.

The entire First Folio project was given to William Jaggard, a blind printer, and printing began in 1622. The Tempest was the first play in the publication. It was carefully proofread and printed, making it the most neatly printed and accurate version of the 36 plays. Three compositors (workers who set type for printing) were used for The Tempest. In the 1960s, a study by Charlton Hinman identified these compositors based on differences in the printed text. The compositors were named B, C, and F. Compositor B worked on The Tempest’s first page and six others. He was an experienced printer at Jaggard’s shop but sometimes made mistakes. He may have been responsible for the entire First Folio. Compositors C and F worked full-time and were skilled printers.

At the time, spelling and punctuation were not standardized, so they varied from page to page because each compositor had their own preferences. The printing process was paused at least four times to allow for proofreading and corrections. Pages with errors were not thrown away, so pages printed later in each run were more accurate. This was common practice. There is also evidence of a printing error: in one scene, the word “wise” was printed using a traditional long “s” that looked like an “f.” In 1978, it was suggested that a small part of the letter’s type broke during printing, changing the word to “wife.” Modern editors disagree—some say “wife,” others say “wise.”

Themes and motifs

In The Tempest, the play's ending reflects on the fleeting nature of life and illusion. The actors, who are spirits, disappear like smoke, and the grand sights of the play—towers, palaces, and the world itself—fade away, leaving nothing behind. Humans are like dreams, and life is short, ending in sleep.

The Tempest is about the nature of theater itself. Prospero, the main character, uses magic to create illusions, such as the shipwreck, which is performed by Ariel. Prospero compares the world to a stage, saying it will vanish like a dream. Ariel often takes on roles from mythology, like a nymph, a harpy, or Ceres, who appears in a scene Prospero creates.

The masque in the play is not a real event but a dramatized version of one. It is part of the story and shows Prospero’s magical power, as Ariel and others act out scenes. In the masque, goddesses like Iris, Ceres, and Juno celebrate the love between Miranda and Ferdinand.

The language in the masque is highly stylized, which some critics in the 20th century criticized, believing it might have been written by someone else. The Tempest draws from the masque tradition, which Ben Jonson helped develop. This tradition often contrasts opposing forces, such as Ariel, who represents beauty and air, and Caliban, who symbolizes ugliness and earth.

Prospero’s tone toward his enemies—Antonio, Alonso, and Sebastian—is angry and vengeful. However, in the final act, he says he will forgive them if they show remorse. Yet, as scholar Stephen Orgel notes, Antonio is never given a chance to express regret. Prospero forgives Alonso but hesitates with Antonio, saying, “You, brother mine… I do forgive thee,” then later calls him “unnatural” and “most wicked.” He finally forgives Antonio but does not allow him to repent.

Shakespeare’s writing in the final act is sparse, leaving room for the actor playing Prospero to decide whether his forgiveness is genuine or influenced by Ariel’s advice to be “tender.”

A key goal for Prospero is to secure his family’s future by marrying his daughter, Miranda, to Ferdinand, the heir to Naples. Chastity, or purity, was an important virtue during Queen Elizabeth’s reign, and Miranda must remain a virgin for the marriage to be acceptable.

Miranda is viewed as a sexual object by three characters:
– Caliban, who tried to harm her honor.
– Stephano, who believes she will be his wife.
– Ferdinand, whose love for her threatens her purity.

This theme of chastity is central to the masque in Act IV, where Venus and Cupid are excluded, and Ceres and Juno celebrate pure love.

Prospero’s magic is described as “theurgy,” a type of white magic linked to ancient philosophy, unlike “goety,” or black magic. During Shakespeare’s time, all magic was considered dangerous, and King James I wrote that it was punishable by death. Other plays, like Doctor Faustus and The Alchemist, portrayed magic as harmful.

Another view is that Prospero’s magic is like science. Francis Bacon, a writer of the time, suggested that new ideas could control nature. Prospero uses symbols of magic, like his books, staff, and robe, to transform people, not metals.

In the end, Prospero must give up his magic. He must stop using it for revenge and return to his duties as a duke.

Prospero’s magic is contrasted with Sycorax, Caliban’s mother, an Algerian witch who lived on the island before Prospero. Prospero claims his magic is moral and more powerful than Sycorax’s, as he freed Ariel from a pine tree, which Sycorax could not do.

Scholar Stephen Orgel notes that the play shows both positive and negative views of magic. While some critics praise Prospero’s theurgy, Orgel argues that Sycorax’s spirits are not clearly worse than Prospero’s, and Ariel is forced to serve both.

Prospero’s speech giving up magic quotes a line from the witch Medea in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, a reference familiar to Shakespeare’s audience.

Some critics, like Thomas Campbell, believed Prospero might represent Shakespeare himself, though this idea was later questioned.

As The Tempest is likely Shakespeare’s last solo play, it is often seen as a farewell to his career, especially in lines like “Our revels now are ended” and “Ye elves of hills.”

Criticism and interpretation

Comedy: The Tempest is listed first among the "Comedies" in the 1623 First Folio of Shakespeare's works. The story includes elements from the Italian tradition of commedia dell'arte. During Shakespeare's time, a play was often called a comedy if its plot ended with a marriage.

Tragicomedy: Although the story has similarities to Shakespeare's earlier comedies, its darker tone has led some critics, like Joan Hartwig, to call it a tragicomedy. This type of play mixes elements of tragedy and comedy, similar to works by writers such as Beaumont and Fletcher. E. M. W. Tillyard argued that the rules of tragedy in Shakespeare's plays were divided between two of his later works: The Winter's Tale focused more on destruction, while The Tempest focused more on renewal.

Romance: Four of Shakespeare's later plays—Pericles, Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale, and The Tempest—are grouped together as romances. These plays follow a tradition from ancient Greek stories and were also written by Elizabethan authors like Lyly, Lodge, Greene, and Sidney. These plays, as described by Reginald Foakes, create a world where chance plays a big role, and audiences are surprised by unexpected events.

Like The Comedy of Errors, The Tempest follows the "unities" of time, place, and action. Most of Shakespeare's other plays did not follow these rules, taking place in different locations over long periods. For example, The Winter's Tale has a gap of sixteen years, and Cymbeline's story moves between Britain and Italy. In contrast, The Tempest takes place in real time, on a single island, and follows one main plot: Prospero's effort to regain his lost position as duke.

The action of the play occurs on an island ruled by Prospero. The island is likely in the Mediterranean Sea, as travelers from Tunis to Naples encounter it. However, some critics later thought the island was in the North Atlantic, partly because of its connection to the wreck of the Sea Venture and Ariel's mention of the "still-vexed Bermoothes" (a reference to Bermuda). Other critics linked the island to the New World due to the play's colonial themes and references, such as the name of Sycorax's god, Setebos, which comes from South America, and Gonzalo's idea of a Utopia from Montaigne's essay.

Until the mid-twentieth century, Prospero was often seen as a kind and noble character. However, more recent critics and performances have viewed him as uncertain, controlling, and suspicious. This change in perspective is partly because Prospero does not share his thoughts with the audience through soliloquies. It also reflects changing views about leadership and family.

The Tempest is one of Shakespeare's plays most studied from a postcolonial perspective, along with The Merchant of Venice and Othello. Scholars like Peter Hulme have called it a symbol of England's early colonial efforts. From this viewpoint, Prospero is seen as bringing the social and moral rules of Milan (representing London) to the island and enslaving its inhabitants, Caliban and Ariel.

Traditionally, The Tempest was seen as an allegory for artistic creation, with Prospero as a wise and kind figure. Starting in the 1950s, postcolonial scholars began reinterpreting the play, focusing on the impact of the colonizer (Prospero) on the colonized (Caliban and Ariel). While Caliban is often the focus of these discussions, Ariel plays an important role as well. In the 1960s and 1970s, Caliban's line, "This island's mine … which thou tak'st from me," became a powerful statement for African and Caribbean thinkers.

Some critics, like Meredith Anne Skura, argue that postcolonial interpretations sometimes apply later historical events to the play, even though the story does not show Prospero choosing to colonize the island. He was forced to live there after being cast away.

Feminist interpretations of The Tempest examine the roles and relationships of women in the play, as well as how the text constructs ideas about gender. Early feminist analyses of the play were written by Anna Jameson and Mary Clarke.

The Tempest was created in a society dominated by men, a theme the play explores through its limited portrayal of women. Miranda, the only major female character, is fifteen years old, intelligent, and naive. She has only known men in her life, and her father, Prospero, sees himself as her sole teacher. When Miranda recalls seeing "four or five women" care for her as a child, Prospero is disturbed, as he prefers to believe he is the only one who shaped her life. Miranda's memory of these women may symbolize her longing for a world beyond the control of men.

Other women in the play, like Sycorax (Caliban's mother), Miranda's mother, and Claribel (Alonso's daughter), are only mentioned briefly. Because women play such a small role compared to other Shakespeare plays, The Tempest has drawn much feminist criticism. Miranda is often seen as completely controlled by her father, whose only expectation for her is to remain chaste. Ann Thompson argues that Miranda has fully accepted the male-dominated order of her world, believing herself to be subordinate to her father.

Legacy

There is a record of a performance of The Tempest on November 1, 1611, by the King’s Men for King James I and the English royal court at Whitehall Palace on Hallowmas night. The play was one of six Shakespeare plays (and eight others, totaling 14) performed at court during the winter of 1612–13 as part of the celebrations for the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Frederick V, the Elector of the Palatinate of the Rhine. No public performances of the play were recorded until the Restoration period. However, in his 1669 introduction to the version by John Dryden and William Davenant, Dryden mentioned that The Tempest had been performed at the Blackfriars Theatre. Analysis of the play’s stage directions supports this, suggesting the play was likely written for Blackfriars Theatre rather than the Globe Theatre. However, mid-20th-century critic Frank Kermode agreed it was a Blackfriars play but noted it could also have been performed at the Globe, as other late Shakespeare plays were.

From the English Restoration until the mid-19th century, adaptations of The Tempest—not Shakespeare’s original—were the main versions performed. After the monarchy was restored in 1660, Sir William Davenant’s Duke’s Company had the rights to perform the play. In 1667, Davenant and Dryden made many changes and created a new version called The Tempest, or The Enchanted Island. They added characters and plotlines, such as Miranda’s sister, Dorinda, and Caliban’s sister, Sycorax. They also included a character named Hippolito, Prospero’s foster-son, who was played by a woman, a common practice in Restoration theatre. Scholar Michael Dobson called this version the most frequently performed play of the Restoration era and noted it gave more roles to women.

In 1674, Thomas Shadwell adapted the Dryden/Davenant version as an "opera," a play with singing and dancing. Restoration audiences often thought this version was Shakespeare’s original. Samuel Pepys, for example, wrote in his diary that he saw "an old play of Shakespeare’s." The opera was very popular, with Pepys calling it "full of so good variety, that I cannot be more pleased almost in a comedy." In this version, Prospero was very different from Shakespeare’s, described as "like Polonius, an overbusy father focused on protecting his daughters’ chastity and arranging their marriages." A parody of this version, The Mock Tempest, or The Enchanted Castle, was written in 1675 and opened with a scene that seemed like a storm but was actually a riot in a brothel.

During the Romantic Era, The Tempest was a common play in theatres. John Philip Kemble created a version closer to Shakespeare’s original but still included characters like Dorinda and Hippolito. Kemble was mocked for his unusual way of pronouncing Shakespeare’s words, such as saying "aitches" instead of "aches." Spectators packed the theatre just to hear him say lines like "I'll rack thee with old cramps, / Fill all they bones with aches."

William Charles Macready’s 1838 production was the first to focus on Shakespeare’s original text instead of adapted or operatic versions. His performance of Caliban, played by George Bennett, was praised for showing Caliban’s resistance to Prospero’s control.

The Victorian era was known for "pictorial" theatre, which used elaborate sets, visual effects, and long scene changes. In Charles Kean’s 1857 production, Ariel was seen descending in a ball of fire. The production used 140 stagehands, who were described as "unseen … but alas never unheard." Hans Christian Andersen saw this version and described Ariel as "isolated by the electric ray," referring to a light effect used on the actress playing the role.

In Victorian productions, the opening sea-storm was often the most exciting part, and some directors removed Shakespeare’s lines from this scene entirely. Later, producers like William Poel and Harley Granville-Barker focused more on Shakespeare’s text.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Caliban, not Prospero, was often the star of The Tempest. Actors like Frank Benson studied monkeys and baboons to prepare for the role. At Benson’s 1891 opening, a lecturer explained the political themes of the play before it began, but the scene was later replaced with a performance of Haydn’s Der Sturm.

In 1904, Herbert Beerbohm Tree played Caliban in fur and seaweed, with long hair and an ape-like posture, suggesting a primitive, half-human, half-animal character. This portrayal became common until 1934, when Roger Livesey was the first to use black makeup for Caliban. In 1945, Canada Lee played Caliban in New York, starting a tradition of Black actors in the role, including Earle Hyman in 1960 and James Earl Jones in 1962.

In 1916, Percy MacKaye created a community performance called Caliban by the Yellow Sands in New York. The performance focused on Caliban’s rebellion and ended with him asking for knowledge, followed by Shakespeare as a character reciting Prospero’s "Our revels now are ended" speech.

John Gielgud played Prospero many times and is described by Douglas Brode as "the greatest stage Prospero of the 20th century." Scholar Martin Butler noted that Gielgud’s Prospero was strong and intelligent but not always likable.

Postcolonial interpretations of the play, such as showing Prospero as a colonizer, did not appear on stage until the 1970s. In 1970s England, directors like Jonathan Miller and Clifford Williams portrayed Prospero as a colonizer. In 1993, Sam Mendes directed a Royal Shakespeare Company production where Simon Russell Beale’s Ariel openly resented Prospero, played by Alec McCowen. In early performances, Ariel spat at Prospero, causing controversy.